1. RELIGION AND CHOICE

2. POstmODERNIty AND RELIGION
This section looks at the idea of whether religion is in decline or
whether it is in fact simply changing. Can we judge religious
belief on church attendance figures alone? Is religion in decline
in parts of Europe or on a more global scale?
Postmodernism: -------- religion is changing, not declining!
Theorists:
1.) Grace Davie (2007)
 Religion becoming more ‘privatised’.
 Attendance at Church is now a personal choice and not
because we feel ‘we have to go’.
 Believing without belonging – you can hold religious beliefs
but not attend Church.

3.  Vicarious religion –small number of clergy practise religion
on behalf of the larger population.
 Typical of Britain and Northern Europe.
Give examples of when those experiencing religion vicariously will
attend Church:
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 Example of Davie’s theory in practice: Reginald Bibby’s
Canadian Survey (1993) – found 25% of Canadians went to
Church regularly yet 80% said they have religious beliefs.
 Davie believes these people will often be drawn back to the
Church when they experience tragedy.
 Davie claims there are multiple modernities –in other words
Britain and USA will experience religion and its changes
differently.
CRITICISMS:
i.) Voas and Crockett (2005) state evidence from British Social
Attitudes (BSA) survey 1983-2000 shows Church attendance
AND belief in God is in decline.
ii.) Bruce argues the fact that people won’t invest time in
attending Church is evidence of the decline in their beliefs.
TASK:
Pick 10 people and ask them the following 2
questions:
1. Do you attend mass regularly?
2. Do you believe in God?
Tally and record your results. What do they
tell you?

4. 2.) Danielle Hervieu-Leger (2000, 2006)
 Builds on the idea of religion and personal choice.
 Cultural amnesia –children are no longer taught about
religion by their parents, as children were in the past.
 Parents keen to allow children to decide for themselves.
 The Church has lost its power to ‘impose’ religion onto
people.
Can you think of any examples where it is evident that children
are not very ‘aware’ of religious practices and beliefs?
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 Traditional religion has been replaced by individual
consumerism – people have a choice about religion.
 We have become spiritual shoppers – DIY approach to
religion.
 2 new religious types emerging: Pilgrims follow an
individual path, by joining New Age groups or through
individual ‘therapy’. Focus on personal development.
Convertsjoin a religious group with strong sense of
belonging, recreates a sense of community. Examples
such as evangelical movements.

5.  Religion still has an impact on society’s beliefs.
Can you think of any collective societal beliefs or values that have
their roots in religion?
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 These views related to the idea of late modernity – decline
in tradition (and traditional structures such as the Church)
within modern society and increasing individualism.
3. David Lyon (2000)
 Traditional religion is giving way to many new religious
forms.
 Religion has become de-institutionalised – with its signs and
images detached from their place in religious institutions
and instead floating on television and cyber space.
 We now have instant access to beliefs of previously remote
places and religions-->GLOBALISATION
 The ideas have been ‘disembedded’ by the media- lifted
from original local context and placed elsewhere. (‘Jesus in
Disneyland’)
 They then become a cultural resource that individuals can
change and adapt for their own purpose.
TASK:
Research online and provide an
example of religion in cyber
space!

6.  We no longer have to sign up to any one religious tradition –
instead we can pick and mix elements of different faiths
and make them part of our identity.
KARMA (Buddhism)
ANTI-ABORTION
(Catholicism)
CRUCIFICATION
WORKING FOR OF CHRIST
THE GOOD OF (Christianity)
SOCIETY
(Hinduism)
 This has led to a lossBELIEF IN UFOs
of faith in
meta- narratives –(New Age)
theories or
world wide views that claim to have an
absolute authority.
 The access to a range of different beliefs has weakened
the claims of traditional religions that they hold ‘the truth’.
 Lyon believes the past 40 years has seen a period of re-
enchantment (not disenchantment) - a growth of
unconventional beliefs and practices.
CRITICISMS:
i.) PM’s claim use of the electronic Church shows secularisation is
not taking place. But critics argue these are chosen by people to
confirm their religious beliefs it doesn’t attract new members.
ii.) Lyon’s research of the electronic Church did not produce
extensive evidence.

7. iii.) Bruce argues this form of religion described by Lyon is
‘weak’- with little effect on peoples’ lives (.i.e.) proof of
secularisation.
RELIGIOUs mARKEt tHEORy
Theorists:
Stark and Bainbridge (1985)
 Critical of secularisation theory- viewed as too ‘Eurocentric’
(focus on Europe and ignores how religion continues to
thrive in America and elsewhere).
 People are naturally religious and religion meets human
needs- therefore demand will always be there. Although
the demand on types of religion will vary.
 Human nature is to seek rewards and avoid costs. Religion
can provide us supernatural rewards when real ones are
scarce.
 E.g. immortality is impossible –yet we are promised life
after death.

8.  S & B outline a cycle of religious decline, revival and then
renewal.
 Throughout history some Churches have declined and others
have grown. When traditional Churches decline they are
often replaced with sects and cults.
 Secularisation theory therefore recognises the decline in
traditional religion BUT IGNORES THE GROWTH OF NEW.
 Churches must operate like companies selling goods – those
that make their product attractive will succeed in getting
more ‘customers’.
TASK:
Name ways that the Catholic Church
has responded to the needs of their
‘customer’ in recent times.
Evidence of Stark and Bainbridge Theory: America vs. Europe
 If there is a religious monopoly in a country (Church with no
competition) then religion will decline as the Church has no
incentive to change and give the people what they want.
Think about it this way – if a small village had only one
supermarket the owners of the business may not be overly
concerned with good customer service or value for money as they
know their customers have nowhere else to go. If another
supermarket opened in the same village it would cause the first
business to address these issues at the risk of losing their
customers to the newbie.
 They believe due to America having no such monopoly
religion is thriving.

9.  The U.S Constitution separates the Church and the State
and guarantees freedom of religion.
 Europe is a different story – typically dominated by a single
state Church.
 They believe that religious participation is not in decline
because people don’t want it (demand) – but that the supply
of religion that suits them often isn’t there.
 Japan is another example where a free market in religion
has generated more participation. Until 1945 Shintoism was
state religion and other forms oppressed. After WW2
religion was de-regulated and opened up to new forms such
as Buddhism.
Finke (1997)
 Lifting of restrictions on Asian immigration to USA in 1960s
has allowed religions such as Hare Krishna and
Transcendental Meditation to grow.
CRITICISMS:
i.) Bruce argues that religious decline is also evident in America
as well as Europe. They believe S & B have misunderstood
secularisation as a claim that everyone will eventually become
atheist. Bruce claims it is actually a belief that religion is in long-
term decline.
ii.) Norris & Inglehart (2004) claim that many countries with the
Church having a monopoly actually have high levels of religious
participation. E.g. Ireland, Poland, Venezuela. While countries
such as Australia with more religious pluralism have lower levels
of participation.

10. ExIstENtIAL sECURIty tHEORy
Theorists:
Norris and Inglehart (2004)
 Reject the previous religious market theory – they believe it
only applies to America and doesn’t explain different
societies.
 Religion meets a need that we all have for security- in
societies where people feel secure then religion is less in
demand.
 Poor societies famine, disease, natural disastersless
security high religiosity. (There are also poor people in
rich societies who follow the same pattern).
 Rich societies high standard of livinggreater
securitylow religiosity

11.  Therefore the demand for religion is not constant as
suggested by S & B – it varies between societies.
 This explains why Third World countries remain religious,
while many Western countries are more secular.
 Population growth is greater in religious Third World
countries therefore the MAJORITY OF THE WORLD IS
BECOMING MORE RELIGIOUS.
Evidence of Norris & Inglehart’s theory: Europe vs. America
 Western Europe = most equal and secure in the world with
welfare states offering health care etc growing
secularisation
 U.S.A =most unequal of the rich countries with poor welfare
safety net and ‘dog eat dog’ values --> greater need for
religion.
CRITICISMS:
 Vasquez (2007) states this theory based on quantitative
data only – he believes more qualitative info on peoples’
definitions of ‘existential security’ needed.
 N& I ignore the positive reasons that people have for
religious participation.
 N& I ignore the appeal that religion can have for the
wealthy.