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Solid State Drive
Technology
Me:
• Matt Simmons 	

• Network &Virtualization @ NEU-CCIS	

• Blog: Standalone SysAdmin	

• Email: msimmons@ccs.neu.edu	

• Twitter: @standaloneSA	

• This Slideshow: slideshare.net/standaloneSA
Spinning Disks	

!
Key Topics
Voltron Force Assemble!
Variables Affecting
Spinning Disk IO Rate
Platter Rotational Speed
Seek Speed
Data Density
Controller Cache
Logical Block Addressing
• First introduced as an abstraction layer	

• Replaced CHS addressing	

• Address Space is Linear (block 0 - n) 	

• Size of address space depends on the
standard at time of manufacture.
Disk	

Geometry
Solid State Drive
Technology
NOR Flash
• Reads and writes are
atomic single-bit	

• Expensive	

• Small specific use cases
NAND Flash
• Reads are based on pages or
“read blocks” (4k)	

• Writes are based on “erasure
blocks”	

• Cheap (and getting cheaper)	

• Broad use cases
The Magic
Insulating	

Barrier
Pure
Silicon
Doped silicon capable of
holding an electrical charge
Quantum Tunneling
Doped Silicon
Single Layer Cell (SLC)
Multi-Layer Cell (MLC)
Triple-Layer Cell (TLC)
Gradual Destruction
Energy increases	

with cell layers
Multiple cells need	

multiple writes
Barrier accumulates	

electrons
Electrical potential 	

difference of barrier 	

and cells disappears
Difficulty Going Forward
TLC
000 100
001 101
010 110
011 111
SLC
0
1
MLC
00
01
10
11
4LC
0000 0100 1000 1100
0001 0101 1001 1101
0010 0110 1010 1110
0011 0111 1011 1111
Read / Write Profiles
• Logical addresses abstracted from LBA	

• That abstraction can cause complexity	

• No seek time	

• Reads are generally very fast	

• Writes are comparatively slow
Density
• 3-Dimensional 	

• Charge levels 	

• Size of cells	

• “Dot Pitch” (Cells Per Inch)	

• 5nm, 3nm, 2nm	

• Varies with “level” count
SLC / ESLC
• Low Density, Quick (25µs
Read / 200-300µ Write)	

• Write endurance near 100,000
cycles
MLC / EMLC
• Reasonably High Density, Slower
(50µs Read / 600-900µs Write)	

• Write endurance near 3,000
cycles
TLC
• Very High Density, Even Slower
(75µs Read / 900-1350µs Write)	

• Write endurance ~ 1,000 cycles
Write Amplification and
Garbage Collection
Block Sizes
• Read Block	

• 4k (aka “page”)	

• Erasure Block	

• (Large) multiple of 4k	

• aka “block”
256KB 	

erasure	

block size
Write Amplification
Written Data
Empty Cell
Write Amplification
Written Data
Empty Cell
New Data
Old Data
Write Amplification
Written Data
Empty Cell
Old Data
New Data
Write Amplification
Written Data
Empty Cell
New data written	

over old cell
Garbage Collection
Garbage Collection
Garbage Collection
Garbage Collection
Garbage Collection
SSD Performance
Overview
• Depends on	

• Number of flash chips in use	

• Number of busses from the processor	

• Performance of controller CPU	

• Contention 	

• Bus speed	

• Number of erasure blocks used	

• Number of previous writes to flash cells
• Chips	

• IO Busses	

• CPU Cores
Causes of Contention
• Legitimate use	

• Garbage collection 	

• Legitimate (but latent) useage	

• IO Blender!
(Bender Blender: http://bit.ly/10vc7Sf)
Solid State in Practice
Solid State Form Factors
Removable Media Drives
PCI
Parts of an SSD
Controller
Main
Processor
I/O Bus Lanes
RAM	

Cache
Battery / 	

SuperCapacitor
Interface
Flash Chips
Flash Controllers
• Flash Translation Layer (FTL) 	

• Stripe Writes 	

• Interpret bus instructions	

• Wear Leveling 	

• Garbage Collection
Flash Translation Layer
LBA (0...n blocks)
F L A S H C H I P S
SSD Aspects & Concerns
Longevity
• Primarily determined by the class of flash	

• (e)SLC, (e)MLC,TLC	

• Related to wear-leveling	

• Under-reported capacity	

• Short-stroking improves lifetime (not speed)
Partition Alignment
• Performance and longevity 	

• As big (or bigger) issue than it was in
spinning disks	

• Native 4k read blocks 	

• Far larger erasure blocks 	

• larger than is practical for block-size matching
TRIM/Discard
• As a command,TRIM refers to ATA-8 spec 	

• SCSI equivalent is UNMAP, but both are
often referred to as TRIM. 	

• Does not immediately delete unused blocks	

• Allows for GC
Linux TRIM Support
• EXT4 / XFS / JFS / BTRFS - Native using
‘discard’ option	

• Consider NOOP or Deadline IO scheduler	

• Userland:	

• fstrim (part of util-linux) for
R/W vols	

• zerofree for R/O vols
OSX Trim Support
• Comes by default on factory-installed SSDs	

• Trim-Enabler	

• http://www.groths.org/trim-enabler/
ZFS and SSDs
• ZFS Intent Log (ZIL)	

• Adaptive Replacement Cache (ARC)	

• arc_summary can help you decide
Windows
• Native TRIM	

• Win 7, Server 2012+	

• ATA TRIM	

• Server 2012 R2	

• Manufacturer Utilities Only	

• < Win 7, Server 2012
Monitor Health w/
S.M.A.R.T.
• S.M.A.R.T. information 	

• vendor-specific 	

• Includes flash erase count	

• smartctl on Linux and Mac 	

• Dozens of tools on Windows (check wiki)
Forensics
(http://bit.ly/fast11-wei-paper)
...Our results lead to three conclusions:	

!
First, built-in commands are effective, but manufacturers
sometimes implement them incorrectly. 	

!
Second, overwriting the entire visible address space of an SSD
twice is usually, but not always, sufficient to sanitize the drive. 	

!
Third, none of the existing hard drive-oriented
techniques for individual file sanitization are effective on
SSDs
Reliably Erasing Data From Flash-Based Solid State Drives
Michael Wei∗, Laura M. Grupp∗, Frederick E. Spada†, Steven Swanson∗	

∗Department of Computer Science and Engineering, University of California, San Diego	

†Center for Magnetic Recording and Research, University of California, San Diego
Questions?

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Solid State Drive Technology - MIT Lincoln Labs