Eng5

Jfuas No.1 December 2013
55
The Promotion of Environmentally Friendly and Sustainable
Pest Management Systems through Applying Traditional
Methods with Special Reference to Darfur Region.
Ibrahim AbdelRahman Ibrahim Abdel-Fattah ,Faculty of Environmental Sciences and
Natural Resources, Department of Plant Protection, University of Al Fashir, Sudan.
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‫اﻟﻔﺎﴍ‬ ‫ﺟﺎﻣﻌﺔ‬–‫ﻣﺠﻠﺔ‬‫اﻟﻌﻠﻮم‬‫اﻟﺘﻄﺒﻴﻘﻴﺔ‬-‫اﻟﻌﺪد‬‫اﻟﺜﺎين‬–‫دﻳﺴﻤﱪ‬2013‫م‬
56
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Abstract:
Recenty the major problem facing the third world is how to
overcome the acute shortages of food supplies. This shortage has
made the greatest immediate impact upon these societies, where
survival possibilities are endangered or lost on many occasions
particularity in Africa ( Ibrahim,1988), where crop productivity is low
compared to the tremendous increase in population growth. With the
exception of the recent event of drought as the main cause of this
condition .These losses are caused by pests’ attack which under
certain conditions their damaging levels, may amount to a complete
loss of crop yield, that usually occurs even under more stable
ecological conditions. Physical factors vary from year to year since
the beginning of 1 9 70s. up to date. Under these harsh conditions
most of the living agents were able to experience full adaptation. In

57
this regard true locusts (desert and tree locusts) and grasshoppers,
the( Sahelian species) as well as migrant and local bird species ,
in addition to the water melon bugs have emerged as critical
biological threat ,which are characterized by dynamic trends ,
to invade Savannah zone in western Sudan States. Traditional
methods involve accumulative experiences gained from the ever
ending fight between farmers and their pest enemies over
history.
Effective integrated control techniques comprise various
incorporated methods such as cultural, mechanical , biological ,
physical …etc. When these methods applied in appropriate
manner ,they tend to reduce pest population , but not eradicating
the species. However , these methods are efficient and safe to
the environment, especially in confined small holdings , but are
not that so to control wide scale infestations i.e. locusts or
grasshoppers plaques. Under these conditions selected suitable
pesticides is inevitable to apply .
Key words: drought, climate change, biological control, soil borne pests,
predator. .
1-introduction
Agriculture is the main activity of a large sector in Darfur States,
where different crops are grown under different farming systems; it
ranges from rain fed to irrigated agriculture (the utilization of the

58
surface and underground water). The main staple food crops include
millet, sorghum, vegetables (okra, tomatoes, cucurbits etc) plus crops;
fruits (occasionally). Cash crops include ground nuts, sesame, water
melon seeds, Hibiscus spp. (kerkadide), and gum Arabic.
The socio- economic structure is typically traditional and
subsistent type of economy. It aims to the satisfaction of the basic
needs of the poor households. Selling the surplus products has also the
same objectives. Information gathered was specified as to the purpose
of use and to their heritages and culture.
Crop production in North Darfur State is largely controlled by
natural forces. These forces involve different biotic and a biotic
factors, which state the amount of the resources available and their
status. Such component interact with each other at varying degrees.
Under defined conditions the yield is expected to be high, otherwise
the reverse is true.
It is difficult to single out one parameter as being the key factor
responsible for causing crop damage unless other factors are kept
constant. However, the agricultural pests constantly constitute a major
biological threat to the farmers in the state, where considerable crop
damage permanently occurs.
Sudan falls within the Sahelian zone which include a number
of neighboring countries having similar geographical conditions
i.e. Senegal, Nigeria , Niger, Mali, Benin ,Borkinafaso and Chad .
This Region is characterized by irregular climatic conditions
specially the amount of annual rains, their distribution ,density and

59
period of fall. There exist in nature a mixture of grasshoppers ,
the principal species are Oedaleus senegalensis, Oedaleus
nigereriensis , Pyrgomrpha atcogne .These harmful pests invade
the cultivated crops, regardless of the geographical boundareis. In
the event of wanting to get more food and keep the environment
healthy and better strike a balance between the needs and the
resources available for the benefit of the coming generations. In
this sense the introduction and development of Metarhizium spp.
for the control of grasshoppers and locusts is an urgent claim
to attain (Lomer et al 1997).
This paper tries to give some answers to the farmers continuous
complains from pests attack through applying integrated pest
management techniques and encourage the adoption and modification
of the already existing long ago practices.
1.1. What is a pest?
The definition of a pest can be very subjective, varying according
to many criteria, but in the widest sense any animal or plant causing
harm or damage to man, his animals, his crops or possession, even if
just causing annoyance ( Hill, D.S.(1981).
1.2. A pest from agricultural point of view.
An animal or plant out of context is regarded as a pest even
though it may not belong to a pest species.
1.3. Crops – Pests Interactions.
Man has probably been faced by pest problem ever since he
began to grow crops, because he wants the same things pests want.

60
Field observations revealed, that there exist in nature variety of pests
both, national and local species, estimates of not less than 50% of
crop yield is devastated in the region.
Crops attack by pests experience a sequential pattern due to
ecological synchronization between the pests and their foods. Thus
early enemies appear, soon, the seeds are sown or transplanted, these
agents include different pests species like, birds rodents and soil borne
insects, which attack seeds and seedlings. Weeds are also considered
as pests since they compete with crops for nutrients, space, light and
water. Infestation by different species is continued according to crop
stage and pest preference, where roots, stems leaves, flowers, grains or
fruits are destroyed in a systematic manner. Though some species are
polyphagous being able to feed on different parts of different
crops. While pesticides can help poor countries valuable crops, the
hazardous and effects on farmers, consumers and the environment
must not be overlooked(FAO,1998).
. The food relations and feeding behavior of each species is
governed by it’s food ecology, thus along the course of attack the crop
is subjected to an steadily decline in it’s reproductive potential.
1.3.1.Classification of Crop Pests according to Plant Protection
Directorate (P.P.D) in the Sudan.
Pests are classified into two major groups according to their
economic importance:-

61
1.3.2. National Pests (key species)
These groups include the most economically important species,
whose damage nature is catastrophic and characterized by a high
population dynamics and biological potential i.e. Locusts/
grasshoppers, rodents (rats), birds (Oulea.sp.Passer luteus, Sudan
sparrows and local bird species), Dura and at (Agonoscelis
pubescence) (thbg).
1.3.3. Local pests (minor species)
This term is used to denote these species whose damage nature
is of minor importance and local. Though, they may become serious
under suitable conditions. This group include a very wide spectrum of
pest species i.e. beetles, butterflies and moths, bugs , weeds, leaf
hoppers, white flies, aphids etc.
1.4. Traditional methods of pest management practiced by
farmers in Darfur.
Generally the current agricultural practices rely on the
indigenous methods (but not exclusive), which were gained through
farmers long experiences. Although these methods are inefficient and
back warded but they are quite safe to the environment as compared
with the deleterious effects of chemical pesticides.
The traditional methods of pest management have got a
multidimensional scope, since these practices link crop production
with social values and believes to maintain human survival. While
controlling pests, extra benefits are also achieved, where some animal
species are used as foods or medicines such as locusts, birds, rabbits,

62
foxes, rats etc, more over folklore ceremonies are being practiced as a
part of the social traditions i.e. Hunting and Dumbarei ceremonies.
However, the need for investigating and testing these indigenous
practices is important in the view of wanting to maximize crop
production and protect the environment from pesticides hazards.
2. Materials and Methods.
The information was collected by following the method described
by Huis(1996) and by making use of past experiences in pest control
in Darfur Region.
The stated objectives were achieved through the management of
the local components by incorporating them with the modern
techniques. The indigenous pests control methods involve inherited
long ago agricultural practices, as mentioned below:-
2.1. Field Studies. Information was collected by reviewing the
literature, conducting, interviews and by making use of past
experiences in pest control during the period (1983-1997). However,
because of the budget limitations orientated and individual contact
method were made of areas characterized by high infestations of pests
traditional breading zones, while dealing with annual surveys and
control operations(P.P.D.Elfasher,1997) as shown below:

63
Tabe1: Areas surveyed in North Darfur during the period 1983-1997.
Areas
Interviewed
Person
El
Fahser
Kebkabyia Kutum Mellit Eliet
Gar
alnabi
total
Crop
protection
officer
technicians
5 2 1 1 2 11
Farmer 10 10 5 5 5 35
Local leader 20 15 8 7 5 55
Subtotal 35 27 14 13 12 101
2-2 Cultural Methods
Cultural methods involve the steps taken by the farmer to improve the
conditions under which the crop plants are grown.
.2-3.Mechanical Methods:
Involve different tools for controlling vertebrate pests as shown
below:-
Table 2: Mechanical Traps used by farmers in North Darfur
Trap type Pests captured
1. Kajama Foxes, rabbits, wolves
2. Nubal or Dimbel Rats, rabbits, squirrels wild hens,
Hystrixs crestata
3. Robes Rabbits, wild hens,Hytrix crestata
4. Nets (Umkofayia) Birds ie. Oulea sp. Passer luteus
2.4. Biological control methods.
Different biological agents, parasites, predators and pathogens
were used by nature or as a natural acts.

64
3- Results and Discussion
Information collected was processed, in away as to represent
various mechanisms of environmentally friendly and good farmers
interests. However, when these mechanisms are employed in
sequential pattern with the plant growth , pest attack is assumed
to be augmented.
3.1. Seed selection (Tairab)
Despite of the fact that improved seeds perform better in terms
of yielding capacity and consumers taste as compared with the local
varieties. However indigenous seeds are still used and do well
particularly with regard to environmental adaptability and pests
resistance i.e. Millet (Dimbei and Abosoof (Spiny varieties) Tomatoes
(Abokafa),Okra (Wad-Tantonj), Melons (Saphinja) etc.
During harvest farmers select their seeds (Tairab) according to
certain specifications i.e. good characters, high germination% and
high yielding capacity, drought and pest resistance healthy, quick
maturity etc. which they gained from their long ago experiences,
fathers and grand fathers. Selected seeds are tested before storage
i.e. tomato seeds are mixed with ash (Rum ad) and dried under
sun action, okra fingers and millet heads are stored in the kitchen
(Tokol) to be protected from insects by smoking. Selected seeds are
preserved in cloths and put in pots, metallic containers like tins or
sometimes in Dabangs.

65
3.2. Sanitary practices (Nadafa or Jewada)
Cleaning the farm from old crops (rations) trashes, debris,
volunteers, small bushes etc, that harbor pests specially rats and birds
is normally practiced before sowing (May- June).
3.3. Tillage (Hirata)
This practice is carried out in clays by using animals (camels,
horses and donkeys) drawn tools Maharit during summer season. The
main purpose of this step is to improve the physical properties of the
soil to improve water infiltration rate, as well as controlling soil
borne pests by exposing them to sun action and predators i.e. disposed
pupae, weed rhizomes etc.
3.4. Dry sowing (Ram ail)
Early sowing on dry conditions is usually practiced before rains
(Ram ails).This type of sowing is a good tactic against rats and birds
where seed attack is avoided by escaping. On early raining ,the holes
are covered and it is difficult for the pests to find them .This
was then , followed by a rapid growth of the crop.
3.5. Weeding (Hishasha)
Early control of weeds is applied by using hand operated tools, the
weeding hoes ie. Jarayas (different types, males (Dakar) and females
(Intaya), Kadanka to prevent competition from the rapid growing
weeds. When labour availability becomes short farmers tend to co
operate and work in groups (Nafeer) to control weeds in ajoint group
singing and practicing good ceremony.

66
3-1-6 Reweeding (Jankab)
The late germinated weed seeds and the regenerated parts of some
rhizomenous species i.e. Cyperus rotundus (sida) requires reweeding
to reduce weed population density below injury level. This step is
followed by the first weeding.
3.7. Crop thinning (Shalikh, tafneed or burbar)
Crop thinning means the reduction of the plant density per hole by
removing the smallest and weaken plants to limit intra specific
competition for growing factors.
3.8. Irrigation
Irrigation is confined to certain areas in the state i.e. Korma
Gaili,Tiena,Martal,Abu-Sakeen,Sayah,Dar-Alsalaam Kutum,
Kebkabyia , farmers benefit from the underground water for irrigating
their crops by using pumps (modern) and hand lifting systems(
traditional). Regular irrigation intervals inhibit infestations by
termites and other soil borne insects.
3.2. Mechanical Methods
3.2.1. Trapping (Sharak)
Trapping is one of the oldest methods of pest management
practiced long ago by farmers, where many types of animal traps are
used for capturing different vertebrate pest species, some traps are
specific to certain animals others are non- specific, where many
species are captured with. Although trapping is confined to smaller
areas but it is effective especially for the large animal pests like foxes,
rabbits, wolves.

67
3.2.2. Digging animals burrow
Physical power has been used to dig animal shelters for controlling
some vertebrate pest species like rats, squirrels and foxes, the exposed
animals are killed. Rats and squirrels are consumed by certain
communities, where foxes hides are used for making shoes, hats and
their fats as medicines. The up-setting of the pest habitat living homes
will enforce them to immigrate elsewhere or live as scattered group.
3.2.3. Hunting (Ganees)
Although hunting is conducted as hobby and or a food source,
however, sometimes when the population density of certain species
grow up around the farms such as wild hens foxes, squirrels and
rabbits. The villagers conduct what is so called ganees folklore. With
the help of high speed dogs, they aim to capture as many animals as
they could. When the action wound up, some pest individuals will be
killed, others flee to safer ecosystems. This operation will reduce the
population of pests at least for a temporary period.
3.2.4. Destruction of birds nest
The most serious grainvorous birds, that can destroy a larger
amounts of cereal grains (Millet, Rize and Sorghum) are weaver birds
(Qulea qulea aethiopica) and Sparrows (Passer luteus) seeds are
removed whole from milky stage until harvest. Under farmers
conditions the most effective method of control is to reduce the
population size of the birds by destroying the roots and colonies. In
this case, the chance of increasing the number is declined sharp by up-
setting the breeding cycle. Large amounts of birds are also eaten by

68
the farmers during campaign. Finally the remaining bird
community is enforced to fly one go.
3.2. 5. Digging trenches for hopper control (Karaiet)
This method is an old practice; it is used for the control of the
marching immature stages of the desert locusts (1-5th
instars). The
trench is made across the direction of the movement of the nymph
instars, as a barrier. The trench is roughly, ½ - 1 meter wide, ½ meter
deep and its length depends on the population size of the stages. The
marching locusts are driven by tree branches to fall into the trench
which where then buried by using spades.
3.2.6. Hand picking
This method is confined to small holdings where adults and larvae
of some insect species are collected by hands and buried i.e. Boll
worms, Bugs i.e. Spongypus vidatus = (Coridius vidatus).. Beetles
i.e. Red melon beetle, Africa melon lady birds. Weeds are also up-
rooted by using hands when hoeing is impracticable.
3.3. Biological control
It is a natural act, where some biological components interact-
negatively i.e. Predators, parasites and pathogens with their respective
preys and hosts. What could be considered a biological control by man
under traditional agriculture, is the direct eating of some incest species
where a large amounts are consumed as food or medicines and sold
at wide scale in small and big markets (Hajar Guddo
market).Farmers gain more money during locust control
campaigns. -In the Sudan people unlike feeding on some species i.e.

69
Zonocerus .variegatus(L.) and Poekilocerus bufonius hieroglyphicus(
Kug,1832 )(M. Lecoq and M.H. Lunois) which feed on noxious
plants I.e. Ipomea fistulosa and Calotropis procera and some other
asclepiads such as Pergularia respectively. It is quite puzzling to
mention that Zonocerus variegatus(L.) is reported roasted and
eaten in Akok area of Ondo State 1 in Southern Nigeria (The
Food Insect News Letter,1992).But this behavior is mainly due
to differences in nations culture. The insect water melon bug
locally known as ( Umbaga) , Coridius viduatus (L.)is used as
food diet in some countries. Production of oil is utilized both as
food and as an antibacterial agent in some skin diseases and
biodiesel from this insect.(Sener Tarla. et al,2013).For vertebrate
pests , Zeese. W.Burgstaller .H.,and Tahir.A.(1984) reported that so
many rodent species attack stores and field crops in the Sudan .
Some rodents have got large sizeable species with tasted meat
i.e. Abo –Shook, Sytrix cerstata,(Abdel-Karim . H.A. Elmustafa.) is
eaten as food and used as medicine by local people in many
areas in Darfur.

70
Table 3: Important insects and vertebrate species eaten by man in
North Darfur.
Type of the
vertebrate or
insect
Scientific name Common name Local name
-Schistocena gregaria
An - acridium
melanorhodon
- Anacridium
wernerellum
Desert locust
Tree locust
Tree locust
Shaow
Sari Alail
-
Grasshoppers - Kraussaria
angulifera
- Cataloipus
cymbiferus
- Diabolocatantops
axilllaris
- Hieroglyphus
daganensis
-
-
-
-
Umjorkum
Umi-ajain
Um-simaindo
Esabi-
Elmolok
3. Bugs Agonoscelis pubescens Sudan millet faing
4. Birds (many
species)
- Qulea sp.
- passer luteus
- Sparrows
-
Sudan dioch, red
billed
-
Sudan golden
wild hens
Abuhatab
Kiteiw
sparrow
Dajaj Alwadi,
ie halfawe,
Zargawi
5-Rodents, Foxes,
many (species)
i.e.Abo-Shook,Sytrix
crestata
-Arvicanthis niloticus
-0ryctolagus cuniculus
- Rattus rattus
Foxes
Ground Squirrel
Hares
Rats
Bashom, Abo
halima
Sabar
Arnab
Far (Kidik)
3.4. Behavioural Control (Khalaa,Fazaa).
This is one of the effective methods against birds and foxes, where
farmers fix dead hauwks, with spreaded wings in different sites in
millet farms, when moved by wind action, birds feel fear of and fly
away. In the case of foxes, scarecrow ie. man-like structures in white

71
dress are fixed in different sites in watermelon farms when moved by
winds foxes feel fear from and run away.
3.5. Physical methods
3.5.1. Smoking (Dukhan)
It is one of the oldest methods of control, where farmers used to burn
animal dungs and green plants in the late evenings and early mornings
to repel insects by developing smokes, ie. Moths, butterflies, fruit flies
etc.
3.5.2. Burning birds nests (Harig)
Farmers used to set fire on the birds nests around their millet farms.
The action is coincided with the breeding cycles of birds where eggs,
fledglings are destroyed. Although it is an effective method but it is a
wrong practice and very hazardous to the environment.
3.5.3. Burning insects (Nafasha) larvae
This is an especial practice against millet head worm larvae when
millet heads are being attacked, the larvae of Rhaguva albipunctella
(Nafasha) are collected mixed with cocking oil and burned. The bad
odours developed repel moths and butter flies.
3.6. Social believes
3.6.1 Religious values (Duaa)
When man being in danger, he always back to God (Allah) asking
for help. It is a part of the religious values that farmers say their
prayers (Du a a) when plagued by pests and diseases.

72
3.7.2. Ritual practices ( Dambary ceremony)
Dambary is a super power man (magician), who is monitoring
locusts (Desert locust, only, shaow) or birds (Passer luteus, only,
kitiow) by practicing special ceremonies derived from special believes
which is unknown, he experiences folklore ceremonies which is very
odd. He rides on his horse back wearing dirty clothes, with birds
feathers fixed on head, a stick pointed sky high for directing locusts or
beating a drum in case of birds.
The birds or locusts are not killed but are moved from one place to
another depending on how much farmers can pay- farmers respect him
and react very positively towards his claims.
The driven swarms of locusts or birds are restored in remote areas;
usually Dambary lives in, until the next season. I have consulted
professor Magzoub Omer Bashir, the head of the Biological Control
Unit, Faculty of Agriculture University of Khartoum, for further
explanations he mentioned that taking off the birds one go as fear
from the drum noise is acceptable. This practice is compatible with
some novel methods of pests management, but for locusts still further
investigations are needed.
Sometimes personal prejudices override public objectives, where a
Dambary is called to react negatively against some farmers by moving
locusts into their farms where farmers strongly believe on him. In this
case the message of Dambary is reversed and tends to be more
harmful.

73
3.8. Legitimate measures.
Local policies were drawn upon by local institutions for the better
use of chemical pesticides in the agricultural environment to reduce
pollution and to maximize crop yield ,and this activity was taken
over by the subject matter specialist in Extension Department.
4. Conclusion
Crop production in the marginal areas is very risky, where
production factors are uncontrollable in most cases, specially
biological and physical components. These events necessitate making
use of all possible local means to maximize crop yield.
Although modern technologies are highly efficient, but negative
environmental impact is always experienced from their uses specially
chemical pesticides. However the need for investigating these
traditional practices, incorporating them with the new technical
innovations is important since these practices are cheap and
compatible with the environment. However, outbreaks of locusts
and grasshoppers are controlled by large applications of chemical
pesticides. Integrated Pest Management ( I.P.M.) techniques have
been applied rarely and still rely heavily on chemical spraying the
major control mechanism (Cunning-ham,1992).
This simple work is an attempt to formulate the structure of some
indigenous methods of pests’ management and highlighting their
ecological importance. The bulk of the knowledge concerning the
issue is personal experience in the field of pest management in
Darfur.

74
I think the option of pest management by using non-
chemical methods is an interesting area of research work
specially for those who deal with chemical alternatives.
References
1. Cunningham, C.L.1992. APHIS:grasshoppers integrated pest
management in the United States - aco- operative project
with emphasis on biological control. pp.21 – 25 in
Lomer,C.J.and C.Prior(Eds) Biological Control of Locusts
and Grasshoppers CAB International UK. 394pp.
2. F.A.O.(1998) At Work. Helping to build a world without
hunger.
3. Hill,D.S. (1981). Agricultural insect pests of the tropics and
their Control(2nd edition) Hyda House, Saxby Avene
Skengess, lines England. 746pp.
4. Huis,Arnold Van1996. The Traditional use of arthropods in
Sub –Sahara Africa Proc. Exper. And Applied Entomology
.NEV. Amesterdam vol.7.
5. Ibrahim.A.I.,(1988). Studies on life tables, ecology and
efficiency of aphidophagous coccinellid, M.Sc. Thesis
Faculty of Agricuture .U.of.K.,Sudan.
6. Ibrahim.A.I.,(2003).Studies on the Biology, Ecology and
Behavior of the Variegated Grasshopper, Zonocerus
variegates.(L).,(Pygromorphidae), Ph.D. Thesis, Unversity of
Khartoum, Sudan .

75
7. Ibrahim.A.I.(1995). Personal experience in pest control in
(Plant Protection Department) North Darfur State,
ElFasher,Sudan.
8. Kranz, J., Schmutterer, H. Koch, W. (1978).Diseases ,pests
and weeds in Tropical crops. John Wiley and sons.
9. Lecoq, M. (1988). Les Criquets Du Sahel. Ministere de
Affaires Etrangeres des pays-Bas et
CIRADL|PRIFAS(France) 129pp.
10. Lomer, C.J.,Prior,C.,Kooyman.C.(1997).Development of
Metarhizium spp.For the Control of grasshoppers and
Locusts.
11. M.H.Launois-Luong et M. Lecoq(1989) Collection
Acridologie Operationelle, Vade-Mecum Des Criquets Du
Sahel.
12. P.P.D. (1997) locusts and Grass- hoppers Annual campain
report in North Darfur El Fasher ,Sudan.
13. P.P.D.(1995) Special Report on the effects of grasshoppers
on groundnuts and millet production in Elliet Gar El nabi
Rural Council, Umkadada Province North Darfur State,
Sudan.
14. Sener Tarla , Halit Yetisir and Gulcan Tarl (2013) Black
water melon bug, Coridius viduatus (F.)
Heteroptera:Dinidoridae) in Hatay Region of Turkey. Journal
of Basic and Applied Sciences .

76
15. The Food Insects Newsletter(1992)Toward filling in
some Gaps in Global Inventory of Edible Insects Volume
5: no. 3.
16. Zeese. W. Burgstaller. H., Tahir. A. (1984). Rodent pests
and their control in the Sudan . Sudanese – German Plant
Protection Program, Plant Protection Sudan.

1K W¯ J
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