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1. Industrial Revolution, in modern history, the process of change
from an agrarian, handicraft economy to one dominated by
industry and machine manufacture. This process began in
England in the 18th century and from there spread to other
parts of the world. Although used earlier by French writers,
the term Industrial Revolution was first popularized by the
English economic historian Arnold Toynbee (1852–83) to
describe England’s economic development from 1760 to
1840. Since Toynbee’s time the term has been more broadly
applied.
The main features involved in the IndustrialRevolution were
technological,socioeconomic,and cultural.The
technological changes includedthe following: (1) the use of new
basic materials,chiefly iron and steel,(2) the use of new energy
sources,includingboth fuels and motive power,such as coal, the
steam engine,electricity,petroleum,and the internal-combustion
engine,(3) the invention of new machines,such as the spinning jenny
and the power loom that permitted increased productionwith a
smaller expenditure ofhuman energy,(4) a new organization of work
known as the factory system,which entailed increased division of
labour and specializationof function,(5) importantdevelopments in
transportation and communication,including the steam locomotive,
steamship,automobile,airplane,telegraph,and radio,and (6) the
increasing applicationof science to industry.These technological
changes made possible a tremendously increased use of natural
resourcesand the mass production of manufacturedgoods.
There were also many new developments in nonindustrialspheres,
including the following: (1) agriculturalimprovementsthat made
possible the provisionof food for a larger nonagriculturalpopulation,
(2) economicchangesthat resulted in a wider distribution of wealth,
the decline of land as a sourceof wealth in the face of rising industrial
production,and increased internationaltrade,(3) political changes
reflecting the shift in economic power,as well as new state policies
corresponding to the needs of an industrializedsociety,(4) sweeping
socialchanges,includingthe growth of cities, the developmentof

2. working-class movements,and the emergenceof new patterns of
authority,and (5) culturaltransformations ofa broad order.The
workeracquirednew and distinctive skills, and his relation to his task
shifted; instead of being a craftsman working with hand tools, he
became a machine operator,subjectto factory discipline.Finally,
there was a psychologicalchange:man’s confidencein his ability to
use resources and to master nature was heightened.
The First Industrial Revolution
In the period 1760 to 1830 the Industrial Revolution was largelyconfined
toBritain. Aware of their head start, the British forbade the export of
machinery, skilled workers, andmanufacturing techniques. The British
monopoly could not last forever, especiallysince some Britons saw profitable
industrial opportunities abroad, while continental Europeanbusinessmen
sought to lure British know-how to their countries. Two Englishmen, William
and John Cockerill, brought the Industrial Revolution to Belgium by
developing machine shops at Liège (c. 1807), andBelgium became the first
country in continental Europe to be transformed economically. Like its
English progenitor, the BelgianIndustrial Revolution centred in iron, coal,
and textiles.
France was more slowlyand less thoroughly industrialized than either Britain
or Belgium. While Britain was establishing its industrial leadership, France
was immersed in its Revolution, and the uncertain political situation
discouragedlarge investments in industrial innovations. By 1848 France had
become an industrial power, but, despite greatgrowth under the Second
Empire, it remained behind England.
Other European countries laggedfar behind. Their bourgeoisie lackedthe
wealth, power, and opportunities of their British, French, and Belgian
counterparts. Politicalconditions in the other nations also hindered industrial
expansion.Germany, for example, despite vastresources ofcoaland iron, did
not begin its industrial expansionuntil after national unity was achievedin
1870. Once begun, Germany’s industrial production grew so rapidly that by
the turn of the century that nation was outproducing Britain in steeland had
become the world leaderin the chemicalindustries. The rise of U.S. industrial
powerin the 19th and 20th centuries also far outstripped Europeanefforts.
And Japantoo joined the Industrial Revolutionwith striking success.

3. The easternEuropeancountries were behind early in the 20th century. It was
not until the five-year plans that the SovietUnion became a major industrial
power, telescoping into a few decades the industrialization that had takena
century and a half in Britain. The mid-20th century witnessedthe spread of
the Industrial Revolution into hitherto nonindustrialized areas suchas China
and India.
The Second Industrial Revolution
Despite considerable overlapping with the “old,” there is mounting evidence
for a “new” Industrial Revolutionin the late 19th and 20th centuries. In terms
of basic materials, modern industry has begun to exploit many natural and
synthetic resources not hitherto utilized: lighter metals, new alloys, and
synthetic products such as plastics, as wellas new energy sources. Combined
with these are developments in machines, tools, and computers that have
given rise to the automatic factory. Although some segments of industry were
almost completelymechanized in the early to mid-19th century, automatic
operation, as distinct from the assemblyline, first achieved major significance
in the secondhalf of the 20th century.
Ownership of the means of production also underwent changes. The
oligarchicalownershipof the means of production that characterizedthe
Industrial Revolutionin the early to mid-19th century gave way to a wider
distribution of ownership through purchase of common stocksby individuals
and by institutions such as insurance companies. In the 20th century, many
countries of Europe socializedbasic sectors oftheir economies.There was also
a change in political theories:instead of the laissez-faire ideas that dominated
the economic and socialthought of the classicalIndustrial Revolution,
governments generally moved into the socialand economic realmto meet the
needs of their more complex industrial societies.
The Great Exhibition
The GreatExhibition,housed within the ‘CrystalPalace’,displayed
Prince Albert’s vision of exhibiting industry.Liza Picard looks at the
exhibits,the building and the ideas behind it all which attracted
millions of visitors during1851.

4. The CrystalPalace
If you took an omnibus along London's Knightsbridge in the summer
of 1851,you would see an astonishing sight.Glittering among the
trees was a palace made of glass,like something outof the Arabian
Nights. It was as tall as the trees,indeed taller,becausethe building
archedover two of them already growingthere,as if, like giantplants
in a glasshouse,they had been transplanted with no disturbanceto
their roots.A shower of rain washed the dust from the glass,and
made it glitter all the more.Nothing like this had been seen in London,
ever.
This was the ‘CrystalPalace’,home to the GreatExhibition,an idea
dreamtup by Queen Victoria'shusband,Prince Albert,to display the
wonders of industry and manufacturing from aroundthe modern
world.Britain was at peace.The Chartists had meekly delivered their
Petition to the House of Commonsin three cabs,and gone home.
Albert could write to his cousin King William of Prussia,that ‘we have
no fear here either of an uprising or an assassination’.England was
experiencinga manufacturing boom.This wasthe time to show off,
on the internationalstage.
The exhibits
There were some 100,000objects,displayed along morethan 10
miles, by over 15,000 contributors.Britain,as host, occupied halfthe
display space inside,with exhibits from the home country and the
Empire.The biggestof all was the massive hydraulic pressthat had
lifted the metal tubes of a bridge at Bangor invented by Stevenson.
Each tube weighed 1,144 tons yet the press was operated by just one
man. Next in size was a steam-hammer thatcould with equalaccuracy
forge the main bearing ofa steamshipor gently crack anegg.There
were adding machineswhich might put bank clerks outof a job; a
‘stiletto or defensive umbrella’–always useful – and a ‘sportsman’s
knife’ with eighty blades from Sheffield – not really so useful.One of
the upstairs galleries was walled with stained glass through which the
sun streamed in technicolour.Almost as brilliantly coloured were
carpets fromAxminster and ribbons from Coventry.
Paris Exposition of 1889

5. The Universal Expositionof 1889 (Exposition Universelle de 1889)
was a highly successfulinternationalexhibition and one of the few
world's fairs to make a profit. Its centralattraction was the Eiffel
Tower,a 300-meterhigh marvelof iron by Gustave Eiffel.Over eighty
other structureson the Champ de Mars housedexhibits,including the
impressive 1,452 footlong Galerie des Machines by FerdinandDutert.
The fair attracted exhibits from Europe,South America,the United
States,and the Frenchcolonies,yet in the final analysis it was a
celebration of French achievements on the centennialof the French
Revolution.Photographsin the Prints and Photographs Division
documentmany of the achievements in architecture,the fine arts,and
new technologythat the exposition was designedto highlight.
The Eiffel TowerPioneers MetalConstruction:
The IndustrialRevolution in Europe broughtabouta new trend: the
use of metallurgy in construction.Becauseof this, the engineer's role
became increasingly important,in some cases rivaling thatof the
architect.Built in 1889,Eiffel Tower in Paris is perhaps the most
famous example ofthis new use for metal. The Tower,made
of puddled iron,is named after Gustave Eiffel, the architect,designer,
and engineer
Engineeringthe Eiffel Tower:
Rising 300 meters (984 feet) high , the Eiffel Tower is the
tallest structurein Paris.For 40 years,it measured the tallestin the
world.The metal lattice-work,formed with very pure structuraliron,
makes the tower both extremely lightand able to withstand
tremendous wind forces.The EiffelTower opento the wind, so when
you stand near the top you may have the sensation thatyou are
outside.The open structurealso allows visitors to look "through" the
tower - to stand in one part of the tower and look through the latticed
wall or floor to another part
The MachineHall Commentary
“Erectedand glazed in the space of a year, Contamin’s shed was a huge ‘tent’
of blue and white translucent glass covering a clearspace of 800 by 380 feet
and held in place by 10-foot-deep, wrought-iron, lattice arches;steel, at that

6. date, still being extremely expensive. Beneaththis canopy, mobile platforms
running on rails, shuttled some 100,000people a day above the latestexamples
of industrial machinery laid out at their feet; a mechanicalpanorama to be
viewed solipsistic ally, so to speak, from the vantage point of a mobile
exhibiting machine.”Kenneth Frampton and Yukio Futagawa.Modern
Architecture 1851-1945.Details Built for the 1889 InternationalExhibition,
Paris, the centenary celebrationof the FrenchRevolution (as was the Eiffel
Tower)and demolishedin 1910.427 m (1400 ft) long, 45 m (150 ft) high, with
spans of 114 m (375 ft). Completely glazed.
Arts and Crafts Movement
, English aesthetic movementof the secondhalf of the 19th century
that represented the beginningof a new appreciationof the
decorative arts throughoutEurope.
By 1860 a vocalminority had becomeprofoundly disturbedby the
level to which style, craftsmanship,and public taste had sunk in the
wake of the IndustrialRevolution and its mass-producedand banal
decorative arts.Among them was the English reformer,poet,and
designerWilliam Morris,who,in 1861,foundeda firm of interior
decorators and manufacturers—Morris,Marshall,Faulkner,and
Company(after 1875,Morrisand Company)—dedicatedto recapturing
the spirit and quality of medievalcraftsmanship.Morris and his
associates (amongthem the architectPhilip Webb and the
painters Ford Madox Brownand EdwardBurne-Jones)produced
handcrafted metalwork,jewelry,wallpaper,textiles,furniture,and
books.The “firm” was run as an artists’collaborative,with the
painters providingthe designs for skilled craftsmen to produce.To
this date many of their designs are copied by designersand furniture
manufacturers.
By the 1880s Morris’s efforts had widened the appealof the Arts and
Crafts Movementto a new generation.In 1882 the English architect
and designer Arthur H. Mackmurdo helped organize the Century Guild
for craftsmen,one of severalsuch groups established aboutthis time.
Thesemen revivedthe art of hand printing and championedthe idea
that there was no meaningfuldifference between the fine and
decorative arts.Manyconverts,both from professionalartists’ranks

7. and from among the intellectualclass as a whole,helped spread the
ideas of the movement.
The main controversyraisedby the movementwas its practicality in
the modern world.Theprogressives claimed thatthe movement was
trying to turn back the clock and that it could not be done,that the
Arts and Crafts Movementcould not be taken as practicalin mass
urban and industrialized society.On the other hand,a reviewer who
criticized an 1893 exhibition as “the work of a few for the few” also
realized thatit represented a graphic protestagainstdesign as“a
marketable affair,controlledby the salesmen and the advertiser,and
at the mercy of every passing fashion.”
In the 1890s approvalof the Arts and Crafts Movementwidened,and
the movementbecame diffusedand less specifically identified with a
small group of people.Its ideas spread to other countries and became
identified with the growing internationalinterestin design,
specifically with Art Nouveau.
Art Nouveau:ornamental style of art that flourished betweenabout 1890 and
1910 throughout Europe and the United States. Art Nouveau is characterized
by its use of a long, sinuous, organic line and was employed most often
in architecture, interior design, jewelryand glass design, posters, and
illustration. It was a deliberate attempt to create a new style, free of the
imitative historicism that dominated much of 19th-century art and design. Art
Nouveaudeveloped first in England and soonspreadto the European
continent, where it was called Jugendstil in Germany, Sezessionstilin Austria,
Stile Floreale (orStile Liberty) in Italy, and ... (100 of 804 words)
Glasgow Schoolof Art Commentary:
Charles Rennie Mackintoshwona competition to designthe GlasgowSchool
of Art, his first commissionand most important building. Sited at the edge of
a steeply sloping south facing hill, the building, an art school, stretchesalong
an entire block, facing a major street to the north.

8. The building has an eclectic unity with influences from Scottishbaronial
architecture (volumetric masses ofheavy masonry), art nouveau motifs (floral
and geometric motifs in the iron work, tiles, details)and modern materials
and techniques (large, industrial, bracedwindows).
The building plan is a long "E" with corridors along the spine which link
large art studios along the streetside and smaller ancillary rooms and offices
on the back side. At the eastand westends are largerrooms, most
significantly the two story library on the west. The entrance is locatedslightly
off the center, up steps from the street and leads to a toplit museum in the
back.
The building massing and facades reflectits context richly. The north side,
facing the major street, presents a simple, horizontal rectangularmass with
large, industrial windows which light the studios, alternating with masonry
piers. This facade is set behind a stone and iron railing, interrupted at the
centerwith an art nouveau iron arch under which steps lead up to the
asymmetric compositionof the entrance. In contrastthe eastand westfacades
are narrow, towerlike masonry walls above the steeplysloping streets, into
which small paned metal windows recallScottishbaronial architecture. From
the south on the back side, the three arms of the "E" are clearly revealed, and
the masses make a varied assemblagerising above the cityscape of roofs below
it. The museum skylight and the "hen run", a glazedgallery connecting
fourth floor studios are just two elements of the lively composition of the
stuccoedwalls.
The interiors were designedwith equal emphasis in collaborationwith
MargaretMacdonald. Art nouveau floral and geometric motifs bring scale
and colorto the rooms in details of mantlepieces, lighting fixtures, carpets,
furniture, and crockery.
The library was redesignedand built later in 1906, a two story volume with a
mezzanine overlooking the first floor. A darkly finished woodstructure
supports the mezzanine and ceiling. The pendant light fixtures, glass book
cases, carvedbalusters, chairs and work tables are all designedwith art
nouveau motifs, polychrome paint and metal details.
— JY
"Mackintosh's firm belief that 'constructionshould be decorated, and not
decorationconstructed,'in other words that 'the salient and most requisite

9. features should be selectedforornamentation', he applied with greatrhythm
and inventiveness, especiallyin those projects, suchas the Glasgow Schoolof
Art and Scotland StreetSchool, where budgets were severelylimited."
Barbara Bernard, "Introduction" in Jackie Cooper, ed. Mackintosh
Architecture, the Complete Buildings and SelectedProjects.New York:
Rizzoli Press, 1980, pp. 11-12.
This project was the result of a limited competition betweeneight, later
twelve, Glasgow architects. Wonby the partnership of Honeyman and
Keppie, a prominent firm where Mackintoshwas a young assistant, this
relatively minor and demanding project was entrusted to him despite his
lowly status. A major figure in the competition judging was Francis
Newberry, a former professorofand continuing friend of Mackintosh.
—Darlene Levy. drawn from Robert Macleod. Charles Rennie Mackintosh.
p46-47.
"Mackintosh's SchoolofArt, in answerto the Governor's request for a plain
building, is an austere statement, a bold breakawayfrom the traditional
methods of architectural adornment. Built of masonry and brickwork, it
occupies a difficult, narrow sloping site. Mackintoshusedwrought iron to
form structural decorative features, and meticulously detailed every interior
and exterior aspectofthe building. The asymmetric facades ofthe four main
elevations are eachdistinctive, while the lofty spaces andexcellent lighting of
the interior are carefully and most successfullydesigned.
In 1897 Mackintoshrevisedhis designfor the secondphase of the building,
which includes the famous library. His practice of making designalterations
while constructionproceededwas consistentwith his view that drawings
indicated an intentional designframework, and were not final or immutable."
Otto Wagner, (born July 13, 1841,Penzing,near Vienna—diedApril
11, 1918,Vienna),Austrian architectand teacher,generally held to be
a founderand leader of the modern movementin
Europeanarchitecture.
Wagner’s early work was in the already-established Neo-Renaissance
style. In 1893 his generalplan (never executed)for Vienna won a
major competition,and in 1894 he was appointed academyprofessor.

10. As a teacher,Wagner soon broke with tradition by insisting on
function,material,and structure as the bases of architecturaldesign.
Among his notable worksin the Art Nouveau styleare a number of
stations for the elevated and underground City Railway of Vienna
(1894–97)and thePostalSavings Bank (1904–06).The latter,which
had little decoration,is recognizedas a milestone in the history of
modern architecture,particularly for the curving glass roofof its
centralhall.
Though much attacked atfirst, Wagner becamewidely influential.His
lectures were published in 1895 as ModerneArchitektur.An English
translation appeared in The Brickbuilderin 1901.
Adolf Loos,
(born Dec. 10, 1870,Brno,Moravia,Austria-Hungary[now in Czech
Republic]—diedAug. 23, 1933,Kalksburg,
near Vienna,Austria),Austrian architectwhoseplanningof private
residences strongly influencedEuropean Modernistarchitectsafter
World War I. Frank Lloyd Wrightcredited Loos with doing for
EuropeanarchitecturewhatWright was doing in the United States.
Educatedin Dresden,Ger.,Loos practiced in Vienna,althoughhe
spentextendedperiods in the United States (1893–97)and in Paris
(1924–28).Loos was opposed to both Art Nouveau and Beaux-Arts
historicism,and as early as 1898 he announced his intention to avoid
the use of unnecessary ornament.His first building,the Villa Karma,
Clarens,near Montreux,Switz.(1904–06),was notable for its
geometricsimplicity.It was followed by the Steiner House,Vienna
(1910),which has been referredto by some architecturalhistorians as
the first completelymoderndwelling;the main (rear)facade is a
symmetrical,skillfully balancedcomposition ofrectangles.His
essays from this period,denouncing ornamentand decoration,were
equally influential.Loos’s best-knownlarge structureis theGoldman
and Salatsch Building,Vienna (1910),in which a little classical
exterior detailis offset by large areas of blank,polished marble.A
residentof Francefrom 1922,he built a house in Paris for the Dada
writer TristanTzarain 1926.
Art Institute of Chicago

11. The Art Institute was established in 1866 as the Chicago Academy of
Design.It was reestablishedas the Chicago Academy ofFine Arts in
1879,and it took its currentname in 1882.In 1893 it moved to its
presentbuilding,which coversan entire city block bounded by
ColumbusDrive and Michigan Avenue betweenJacksonand Monroe
streets.The building was designedby the architecturalfirm of
Shepley,Rutan,and Coolidge for the World’s ColumbianExposition.
Greeting visitors to the museum are two bronzelionsdesignedby
sculptor Edward Kemeys; their“names”are,unofficially,“on the
prowl” (north lion) and “stands in an attitude of defiance” (south lion).
The museumalso has sculpture gardens(begun after a donation by
Mrs.Stanley McCormick in the 1960s)and an interior courtyard
restaurant.Educationalspaces,including the MortonAuditorium,
provide facilities for expandingpublic knowledgeaboutthe
arts.During the 1920s and ’30s the museum expanded its collection
with generous bequests from such artpatrons as Bertha Honoré
Palmer,Helen Birch Bartlett,and Martin A. Ryerson.In the 1960s the
B.F. Ferguson MemorialBuilding and the Morton Wing were
constructed to house the museum’s expandingcollections,and in
1968 the main building was renamed after RobertAllerton, a museum
trustee.The DanielL. and Ada F. Rice Building was completedin
1988.JapanesearchitectAndō Tadaodesignedthe museum’s gallery
for the display of Japanese screens in the 1990s.At the end of that
decade,construction beganon a new Modern Wing to house 20th-
and 21st-century art,as well as the Ryan Education Center.The
264,000-square-foot(24,526-square-metre)addition to the north side
of the building was designedby Italian architect Renzo Piano.It
featured an outdoor terrace and a path to nearby Millennium Parkand
was completed in May 2009.The Schoolof the Art Institute offers both
undergraduate and graduateprograms and has approximately3,000
students.The Ryerson Library (built in 1901 to house the museum’s
collection of art books)and the BurnhamLibrary (founded in 1912 to
house the museum’s architecture holdings)were merged in 1957.
The Bauhauswas founded in 1919 in the city of Weimar by German
architectWalter Gropius (1883–1969).Its core objective was a radical
concept: to reimagine the materialworld to reflectthe unity of all the
arts. Gropiusexplained this vision for a union of art and design in the
Proclamationof the Bauhaus (1919),which describeda utopian craft

12. guild combiningarchitecture,sculpture,and painting into a single
creative expression.Gropius developeda craft-based curriculum that
would turn out artisans and designerscapable of creating usefuland
beautifulobjects apprTheBauhauscombined elements of both fine
arts and design education.The curriculum commenced with a
preliminary coursethat immersedthe students,who came from a
diverse range ofsocialand educationalbackgrounds,in the study of
materials,color theory,and formalrelationships in preparationfor
more specialized studies.This preliminary coursewas often taughtby
visualartists, including PaulKlee(1987.455.16),Vasily Kandinsky
(1866–1944),and JIn 1925, the Bauhaus movedfrom Weimar to
Dessau,where Gropius designed a new building to house the school.
This building contained many features thatlater becamehallmarks of
modernistarchitecture,including steel-frame construction,a glass
curtain wall, and an asymmetrical,pinwheelplan,throughoutwhich
Gropius distributedstudio,classroom,and administrative space for
maximum efficiency and spatiallogic.osefAlbers (59.160),among
others.opriate to this new system of living. During the turbulentand
often dangerousyearsof World War II, many of the key figures of the
Bauhaus emigrated to the United States,where their work and their
teaching philosophiesinfluenced generations of young architectsand
designers.MarcelBreuerand JosephAlbers taughtat Yale,Walter
Gropius wentto Harvard,and Moholy-Nagyestablished the New
Bauhaus in Chicago in 1937.
Peter Behrens
Peter Behrens is one of the most influential 20th-
century German designers. At the beginning of the
century, he brought forth outstanding works in
painting, architecture, graphic design and industrial
design.
Peter Behrens
Peter Behrens (1868-1940)was Germany's foremostarchitect in the early
20th century, as well as a painter and designer.His buildings greatly
influenced the architecture of the next generation in Europe.

13. During his tenure as directorof the Schoolof Applied Arts in
Düsseldorf(1903-1907),Behrens designed a series of buildings,
including the exhibition hall for the Northwestern German Art
Exhibition at Oldenburg (1905).In this design,simple rectilinear
geometry,plane surfaces,and incised linear decorationreplacedthe
curvilinear forms of his residence.
In 1907 BehrenssucceededAlfred Messelas architectand designer
for the German GeneralElectric Company in Berlin.In this capacity he
designedeverything from company brochures,light fixtures,and
electric teakettles to factory complexes.Of major importance were his
industrialbuildings,such as the TurbineFactory (1909),the High
Tension Factory(1910).
Modern Movement 1925 – 1950 :
The Modern Movement of architecture represents a dramatic shift in
the design of buildings, away from the traditional forms and
construction techniques of the past and toward a new era of design.
The styles of the Modern Movement, Art Deco, Moderne and
International, began in Europe and spread to the United States in
the 1920s. European architects Eliel Saarinen, Le Corbusier, Walter
Gropious and Mies van der Rohe emphasized radically new designs
in the early in 20 th century, abandoning past building precedent
and exploring new materials and technology in their work. The Art
Deco style and subsequent Art Modern style were promoted at the
1925 Exposition des Arts Decoratifs in Paris. Embracing a sleek,
sharp edged appearance with distinctive decorative details, the Art
Deco style presented an exotic new look for buildings. The smooth
wall surface of the Art Deco style was carried over into the
development of the more streamlined, less ornamented Art Moderne
style. The impact of both the Art Deco and Art Moderne styles was
soon eclipsed by the development of the International style, which
left a lasting impression on the urban landscape especially.
The architecture of the Modern Movement was boldly different in
concept and design, continually testing the limits of form, materials,
and function …