2. Linguistics: Definition Linguistics can be defined as the science of language: how human languages work (any language, not just English), and what it is about humans that makes them able to learn and use language. Linguistics focuses on language as it is written and as it is spoken. 3 main categories: Study of language form (morphology, syntax, phonetics) Study of language meaning (semantics, pragmatics) Study of language in context (evolutionary linguistics, historical linguistics, psycholinguistics, sociolinguistics, neurolinguistics, language acquisition, discourse analysis)
3. Linguistics & Other Disciplines May be housed in Department of English at a university May be its own separate department, especially at a research institution Influences semiotics and critical theory Draws on work from such diverse fields as psychology, speech-language pathology, informatics, computer science, philosophy, biology, human anatomy, neuroscience, sociology, anthropology, and acoustics.
4. Language & Authority Language authorities or “mavens”: English teachers, editors, writers, authors of dictionaries, grammar and usage books, and style guides “good” English vs. “bad” English prescriptive vs. descriptive grammar written vs. spoken English constant tension between “rules” of English and the fact language is never static
5. Issues for Consideration Pop vs. Soda Debate: http://popvssoda.com:2998/ Taboo words in English: Anglo-Saxon vocabulary (shit, cock, cunt, fuck*) vs. Latinate vocabulary (feces, penis, vagina, intercourse) New edition of Twain’s Huckleberry Finn and the elimination of the n-word: http://www.npr.org/blogs/thetwo-way/2011/01/04/132652272/new-edition-of-huckleberry-finn-will-eliminate-offensive-words * The etymology of “fuck” is actually unknown; see Oxford English Dictionary
6. Language & Close Reading Close reading = pay careful attention to the written language, noticing and thinking critically about the details of a passage, poem, story, or play as well as the implications of those details Close reading exercise: Analyze “anyone lived in a pretty how town” by e.e. cummings, paying careful attention to language: http://www.poets.org/viewmedia.php/prmMID/15403
7. 5 Categories of Stylistics(Michael Toolan, Language in Literature: An Introduction to Stylistics, 1996) Repetition Patterns Recurrent structures Ungrammatical or “language-stretching” structures Large internal contrasts of content or presentation Demonstrate with sample poem (e.e. cummings, “anyone lived in a pretty town”)
8. Phonology Study of sound systems and sound change Phoneme: distinctive sound of a language cat vs. bat (/k/ vs. /b/) Different parts of the vocal tract are involved in the production of different sounds
9. Understanding Phonology IPA (International Phonetic Alphabet) provides an established set of symbols for representing the sounds of the world’s languages IPA for Standard American English (I will provide you with a key) “English is Tough Stuff” http://www.frivolity.com/teatime/Songs_and_Poems/english_is_tough_stuff.html Great Vowel Shift Demonstrate having the students use lollipops (I have loads) so that they can see the lollipop stick move lower as the move through the vowels
10. Phonology: Exercises Transcription of English words and/or sentences using IPA for Standard American English (I will provide exercise) The caught/cot and pin/pen mergers http://www.ling.upenn.edu/phono_atlas/maps/Map1.html Demonstration of the McGurk Effect: http://ilabs.washington.edu/kuhl/research.html Shows that there is a seeing component to hearing sound; have students listen without looking at the screen (i.e. eyes closed) and then play it again with them looking at the screen Auditory input: /ba/ Visual input: /ga/ Perception: /da/ or /tha/
11. Morphology Study of word structure Smallest meaningful units of a language Analytic language: depends on word order for sentence structure and meaning Synthetic language: employs ending (called inflections) to indicate grammatical function of a word
12. New Word Formation Compounding: combination of free morphemes (a morpheme that has complete meaning in and of itself); i.e. doghouse, chatroom Affixing: attaching a bound morpheme to the head or foot of word; i.e. hyperlink, hacker Alphabetism: formed from the initials of a phrase; i.e. URL (universal resource locator) Acronymy: groups of words shortened to initials and then pronounced as word; i.e. AIDS Clipping: word loses an element next to its root or base; i.e. cell (cellular), blog (weblog), zine (magazine) Backformation: new word formed by removing an affix to form a word that never existed before; i.e. burglar -- burgle
13. Blending: joining two or more words, at least one of which is clipped in the process; i.e. smog (smoke + fog), internet (interconnected + network) Shifting: word in one lexical category mover to another one; i.e. Email (noun – verb) Eggcorns: misheard word that misrepresents etymological form; i.e. eggcorns (acorns), duck tape (duct tape), just desserts (just deserts) Reduplication: repetition of a morpheme, often with a change in vowel or inclusion of rhyme; i.e. mama, hip hop, Humpty Dumpty Neologism: creation of a new word not completely accepted, as yet, into the language; i.e. Affrilachia
14. Morphology: Exercises Have students examine the creation of new words by examining cleaning products and medications Use American Dialect Society website to discuss “words of the year” and other nominations; 2010 winner is App”: http://www.americandialect.org/index.php/amerdial/categories/C178/ Ask students to figure out the longest English word: http://www.npr.org/blogs/krulwich/2011/01/21/133052745/whats-the-longest-word-in-the-english-language
15. Genres & Registers of Texts Genres: category of texts that share certain formal characteristics and textual functions; can have power to maintain social conditions that allow its existence. Registers: text type that exhibits characteristics that distinguish it from other text types Characterized partly by the linguistic practices typical of them Medical form – privileges physical symptoms and minimizes emotional and mental state http://www.pamf.org/forms/143952_Adult_Med_Hx.pdf Resume – frames us as a set of skills rather than as stories; emphasizes skills over learning process (i.e. creativity) of individual English essay: students asked to construct original, creative argument within expected conventions of a student argumentative paper that is thesis-driven with sequential paragraphs
16. Narrative(William Labov & Joshua Waletzky, “Narrative Analysis: Oral Versions of Personal Experience,” Essays on the Verbal and visual Arts, 1967) Abstract: short introductory summary of what happened or an overview statement that captures the interest of the narrative Orientation: background information to orient audience about when and where narrative occurs and who the major players are Complicating Action: moment(s) in the ordering of events where “something happens” of situation changes Evaluation: comments that address why story is interesting, narrator’s attitude toward and reaction to events, anticipated actions of the audience, etc. Resolution: closing material about what finally happens in narrative Coda: final summary or comment, which may provide a moral or lesson or may connect narrative to current situation
17. Narrative Perspective Anny narrative is told from a narrator’s perspective, which can be analyzed as a type of discourse: 1st-person narrative 3rd-person narrative (ominiscient or limited point of view) Self-conscious narrative Fallible/Unreliable narrative Stream-of-consciousness narrative We determine narrative by looking at pronouns, syntax, direct vs. indirect speech, diction, etc.
18. Word Choice & Prosody Poetry (and, to a lesser extent, prose) depends on creative choice of the following: Diction Metaphor: title of I Know Why the Caged Bird Sings Modality: verbs might vs. should vs. must Phonological aspects of language: rhyme, prosody (meter, rhythm, scansion)
19. Possible Additional Exercises/Assignments Close reading of non-literary texts, such as an article on theory or recorded dialogue (male and female speakers in workplace, mother and child, court transcript, etc.) Use hip hop lyrics to examine word choice and prosody Examine the etymology of words in the Oxford English Dictionary online (I will provide a sample assignment)
20. Useful Resources Evolving English (British Library): http://www.bl.uk/evolvingenglish/ Teacher resources: http://www.bl.uk/learning/langlit/index.html Texts in contexts: http://www.bl.uk/learning/langlit/texts/context.html Podcasts: http://www.bl.uk/whatson/podcasts/exhibition/english/index.html
