Trabalho final do curso de extensão História do Reino Unido realizado na UNICAMP.

1. UNIVERSIDADE ESTADUAL DE CAMPINAS
INSTITUTO DE ESTUDOS DA LINGUAGEM
DEPARTAMENTO DE LINGÜÍSTICA APLICADA
ESCOLA DE EXTENSÃO
HISTÓRIA DO REINO UNIDO
TRABALHO DE CONCLUSÃO DE CURSO
Professora Rita de Cássia Barbirato
Elisabete Panssonatto Breternitz
Julho/2002

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The UK flag is blue with the red cross of Saint George (patron saint of England) edged in white superimposed on the diagonal red cross of Saint Patrick (patron saint of Ireland) and which is superimposed on the diagonal white cross of Saint Andrew (patron saint of Scotland); known as the Union Flag or Union Jack; the design and colors (especially the Blue Ensign) have been the basis for a number of other flags including other Commonwealth countries and their constituent states or provinces, as well as British overseas territories
First of all I’d like to say that I enjoyed the course very much and I feel like my English has improved a lot. Now I’ll try to tell the history of England since the beginning until nowadays.
The United Kingdom is formed by Northern Ireland and Great Britain that is formed by Scotland, England and Wales and is located in Western Europe. Its total area is 244,820 sq km, with mostly rugged hills and low mountains. UK lies near vital North Atlantic sea-lanes; only 35 km far from France and now linked by tunnel under the English Channel.
Its highest point is the Ben Nevis, 1,343 m and it has some natural resources like coal, petroleum, natural gas, tin, limestone, iron ore, salt, clay, chalk, gypsum, lead and silica.

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The first known inhabitants of what is now Britain were paleolithic hunters, following herds of wild animals. After the final ice age, agriculturalists began to settle on the island. Over thousands of years, these people and the many others who migrated from the continent evolved increasingly complex social systems. On the final millennium BC, Britain was dominated by Celtic tribes who used iron tools and had extensive contact with the European mainland.
In 44 AD the Romans invaded southern Britain. In 90 AD they created the province of Britannia, and founded London between 70 and 100 AD. In the early 5th century they abandoned the island, leaving it largely defenseless against the raids of Angles, Saxons and Jutes. These Germanic peoples pushed the Celts westwards, taking over the southern part of the island and establishing Anglo-Saxon kingdoms.
During the 5th century, the inhabitants of Ireland and Wales adopted Christianity because Pope Gregory I sent Augustine (now Saint Augustine) there to convert the people. In the 7th century, the British church came under the power of Rome.
During the 7th and 9th centuries Danish invaders overran the eastern part of England. In the 11th century, the Normans, led by William the Conqueror, invaded England and secured the throne. Successive Anglo-Norman kings maintained their power by establishing various forms of vassalage over the feudal lords.
The prestige which Richard the Lion-Heart (1189-99), one of the leaders of the Third Crusade, gained for the English Crown was lost under the reign of his successor, King John (1199-1216). Under John, England lost its French territories, and the barons, in alliance with the Church, were able to restrict the power of the monarchy through the Magna Carta, signed in 1215.
The Magna Carta laid the foundations for the British parliamentary system. It also marked the beginning of a continuous power struggle between the monarchy and the nobility. The growing power of the land-owning class and later the bourgeoisie eventually led to the consolidation of a parliamentary monarchy.
Frequent dynastic conflicts, disputes over territories in France belonging to the English Crown, commercial rivalry between England and France in Flanders, and French help to Scotland in its wars with England took the countries to the Hundred Years’ War (1337-1453), which ended in the loss of the English possessions on the continent.

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The negative effects of the War increased the unpopularity of the monarchy which faced at the same time an anti-Papal movement led by the followers of Wycliffe (a precursor of Luther) and a peasant rebellion. The peasants, led by Wat Tyler, rose up against the payment of tribute and the power of the feudal lords. In 1381, Tyler and his followers managed to enter London and negotiate directly with the King. The Peasants’ Revolt was unsuccessful however and Tyler was later executed.
The period following the Hundred Years’ War was dominated by a long struggle for control of the throne between the royal Houses of Lancaster and of York. This led to the War of the Roses, which ended with the coming to power of the Welsh House of Tudor in 1485. The Tudor period is considered the beginning of the modern British state. One of the Tudor kings, Henry VIII (1509-47) broke away from the Church of Rome, confiscating all its monasteries and founding the Anglican Church. The desire to extend English authority and the religious Reformation to Ireland led to the subjugation of Ulster by Henry’s successor Elizabeth I (1558-1603). Tudor involvement in Ireland laid the foundations of centuries of religious and political conflict in the country.
During the reign of Elizabeth I (1558-1603), poetry and the theatre flourished with playwrights such as Ben Jonson, Marlowe and Shakespeare. Industry and trade developed, and the country embarked upon its ‘colonial adventure’, the beginning of its future empire. After defeating the Spanish fleet - the ‘Invincible Armada’ - in 1588, the British Navy ‘ruled the waves’, with no other fleet capable of opposing it.
British merchant ships involved in the slave trade, or laden with colonists or belonging to pirates and privateers sailed the oceans freely. Markets multiplied, demand grew rapidly, and producers were forced to seek new techniques in order to accelerate production. It was a prelude to the industrial revolution, which was to arise in the country at the beginning of the 18th century.
In 1603, the crowning of James I (James VI of Scotland) put an end to the independent Scottish monarchy. The religious intolerance of James’ son, Charles I, led to a Scottish uprising and increasing discontent in England. The deteriorating political situation led to the Puritans forming an army supported by Parliament; led by Oliver Cromwell, they defeated the royal forces in 1642. In 1649, Parliament sentenced the King to death and proclaimed Cromwell ‘Lord Protector’, establishing a republic known as the Commonwealth. After Cromwell’s death, in 1658, the monarchy was restored with Charles II.
The priorities of the new regime were the colonization of North America and trade with America, the Far East and the Mediterranean. The slave trade - the kidnapping, trafficking and selling of slaves from Africa to buyers in America and other places - which had started in the 16th century, became one of the main sources of income for the empire.
The absolutism of James II and his espousal of Catholicism were opposed by the Protestant Parliament, which deposed James through the ‘Glorious Revolution’. Parliament invited the Dutch prince William of Orange to assume the English throne. William was

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forced to sign the Declaration of Rights (1689), limiting royal powers and guaranteeing the supremacy of Parliament.
In this period John Locke summarized revolutionary ideals, proposing that human beings have basic natural rights: to property, life, liberty and personal security. Government, created by society to protect these rights, must fulfil its mission; if it fails to do so, the people have the right to resist its authority.
In 1707, the parliaments of Scotland and England were joined together, creating the United Kingdom of Great Britain. Britain intervened in the war of succession in Spain, obtaining Minorca, Gibraltar and Nova Scotia through the Treaty of Utrecht (1713). In 1765, increased taxes imposed by the Stamp Act triggered the rebellion and secession of the American colonies, which declared their independence in 1776.
During this period, the two large political parties were formed: the Conservatives (Tories), representing the interests of the large landowners, and the Liberals (Whigs), representing the merchant class. Adam Smith developed the ideas forming the basis of economic liberalism at this time. The liberal doctrine provided the political ideology for British imperialism, which used the concept of ‘free trade’ as a justification for forcing open the ports and markets of the Third World, often with the use of naval force. Perhaps the most notorious examples of this were the Opium Wars fought against China in the mid- 19th century.
After the crushing of a nationalist rebellion in Ireland in 1798, the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland was created in 1801 with the dissolution of the Irish Parliament.
The 18th century gave rise to the agricultural ‘revolution’, which introduced important innovations in farming techniques, as well as major changes in land tenure. The large landowners enclosed their properties, eliminating communal lands, which had been used by small farmers, and introducing a more capitalist agricultural economy.
At the same time, the industrial revolution began, with the textile manufacturers being the first to confront the problem of meeting a growing demand for fabric overseas. The introduction of machinery changed the way in which work was done, and the medieval shop was replaced by the factory. On the heels of the textile industry came mining and metallurgy. The mechanization process was consolidated with the invention of the steam engine, the use of coal as a fuel and the substitution of first iron, then steel, for wood in construction.
This period was characterized by population growth (up from 10.9 million in 1801 to 21 million in 1850), increasing demand and expanding trade, improvements in the transport system, capital accumulation, the creation of a vast colonial empire, scientific advances and the golden age of the bourgeoisie. Britain became the world’s premier manufacturing nation. Its colonial policy helped to prevent competition for its factories; for example it established regulations, which destroyed the Indian textile industry.

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The United Kingdom obtained new territories from its different wars with France, and its triumph over Napoleon at Waterloo (1815).
One result of the industrial revolution was growing discontent among the rapidly increasing working class, due to low salaries, unhealthy working conditions, unsatisfactory housing, malnutrition, job insecurity and the long and tiring working days to which men, women and children were subjected. In many cases, popular uprisings were characterized by violence, and were met with equally violent repression.
In the early stages of the industrial revolution, spontaneous movements arose, like the ‘Luddites’ - textile workers who destroyed machinery to prevent it from destroying their cottage industry. Trade unions began to appear later.
In 1819 a demonstration in Manchester was ruthlessly put down, and repressive legislation followed, limiting the right of association and freedom of the press. Nevertheless, resistance movements continued their activity. One of the main movements of this period was the nationalist Irish Association led by Daniel O’Connell.
The most important of the mass movements was the Chartist Movement, made up primarily of workers. It took its name from the People’s Charter, published in 1838 at a mass assembly in Glasgow, Scotland. This movement brought a number of issues to the fore, both political - universal suffrage, use of the secret ballot, reform of voting registers - and social - better salaries and better working conditions. After its demonstrations and strikes, ‘Chartism’ faded away. However, it had a far-reaching influence and some members of parliament subsequently took up its grievances.
Robert Owen (1771-1858), considered to be the founder of socialism and the English co-operative movement, argued that the predominance of individual interests led to the impoverishment of the masses. From 1830 on, he devoted himself to the establishment of co-operatives and the organization of labor into trade unions.
During the long reign of Queen Victoria (1837-1901), the traditional nobility strengthened its alliance with the industrial and mercantile bourgeoisie. Trade unions were legalized in 1871 and shortly afterwards some labor legislation was approved.
Beginning in 1873, the rising population numbers led to a food shortage, making imports necessary. At the same time industry began to feel the competition from the US and Germany. Britain increased its imperial activities in Africa, Asia and Oceania, not only for economic reasons, but also because of the political ambition to build a great empire. The Boer or South African War (1899-1902), fought to secure control over southern Africa, was the most expensive regional conflict of the 19th century.
The first quarter of the 20th century saw the birth of the women’s liberation movement. The militancy of the suffragettes (name given to women that fought to obtain the right to vote) led to some women obtaining the right to vote in 1917. The most famous example of their militancy was the suicide of Emily Davison, who threw herself in front of the King’s horse during a race in 1913.

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In Ireland, the majority Catholic population were stripped of their lands, restricted in their civil rights because of their religion, and deprived of their political autonomy. Millions emigrated, and political unrest periodically resulted in violent uprisings. Not until 1867 were the privileges of the Anglican Church eliminated; at the same time, measures were taken to improve the situation of the peasants. The 1916 Easter Rising in Dublin was ruthlessly put down by the British, but the Crown forces were unable to win the ensuing guerrilla war, which began in 1918, and Britain finally granted Ireland independence in 1921. Six counties in the northeast, with Protestant majorities, remained under British control with a devolved administration in Belfast.
Economic and political rivalry between the European powers led to the outbreak of World War I (1914-18). The Central Powers of Austro-Hungary and Germany, joined subsequently by Turkey and Bulgaria, fought against the Allied powers of France, Britain, Russia, Serbia and Belgium, with Italy, Japan, Portugal, Romania, the United States and Greece joining during the course of the War.
Despite its victory, Britain emerged from the War weakened. It had invested $40 billion in military expenditure, mobilized 7,500,000 troops, suffered a loss of 1,200,000 soldiers and acquired an enormous foreign debt. The deep economic depression in the post- War years led to renewed unrest among workers, which reached its height in the General Strike of 1926. The Conservative Government declared the strike illegal, but did not take any measures to revive British industry. In the elections of 1929, the Labour Party (formed in 1924) came to power for the first time.
The United Kingdom supported the US proposal to create the League of Nations. In 1931, the British Community of Nations (Commonwealth) was established under the Statute of Westminster. This formally recognized the independence of Canada, Australia, New Zealand and South Africa.
On September 1 1939, Germany invaded Poland and two days later Britain declared war on Germany, marking the beginning of its participation in World War II (1939-45). In May 1940 a coalition cabinet was formed, with Winston Churchill as Prime Minister. From 1939 to 1941, Britain and France were ranged against Germany, which was joined by Italy in 1940. Hungary, Romania, Bulgaria and Yugoslavia participated in the war as ‘lesser’ allies of the Nazis.
In 1941, the Soviet Union, Japan and the US entered the conflict. On May 8 1945, Germany surrendered. The UK, US and the USSR emerged as the major victors from the war. However, the British Empire was eclipsed by the rising power of the US, which became the undisputed economic, technological and military leader.
In May 1945, the Labour Government of Clement Attlee, who won the elections with the slogan ‘We won the war, now we will win the peace’, nationalized the coal mines, the Bank of England and the iron and steel industries.
Pakistan was formed and India became independent in 1947, although both remained members of the British Commonwealth. During the following decade, most of

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Britain’s overseas colonies obtained their independence. Britain was a founder member of NATO (North Atlantic Treaty Organisation) in 1949.
The Franco-British military intervention in the Suez Canal Zone in 1956, which failed due to a lack of US support, was met by strong criticism from both inside and outside Britain. The following year, the UK detonated its first hydrogen bomb in the Pacific Ocean.
The Labour Party under the leadership of Harold Wilson won the general election of 1964. His government faced serious problems, such as the declaration of independence by Southern Rhodesia (today Zimbabwe), and the severing of diplomatic relations with nine other African countries.
In 1967, having been denied entry to the Common Market, and faced with rapidly increasing unemployment, Wilson withdrew British troops from South Yemen, evacuated all bases east of Suez except for Hong Kong, discontinued arms purchases from the US and implemented a savage austerity budget.
In Northern Ireland in 1969, the latent conflict erupted. A number of people were killed and wounded in riots between Catholics and Protestants. The Catholics demanded equal political rights, and better access to housing, schools and social security. The Protestant-controlled Northern Irish Government responded by sending in their armed police reserves against the Catholic demonstrators. The British Government sent in their troops to separate the two sides and took control of police and reserve forces away from the Belfast Government.
In March 1973, the people of Northern Ireland voted in a referendum to remain within the United Kingdom rather than join a united Ireland. Voting was characterized by a high rate of abstentions of 41.4 per cent, and the Protestant majority voted to stay in the UK.
In the 1970s, social conflict in Britain intensified, and Edward Heath’s Conservative Government was faced with strikes in key public enterprises. The dockers, coal miners and railway workers all went on strike. Inability to deal with this labour unrest led to his resignation in 1974, and the Labour Party won the following elections. Amid a complex situation on the domestic front, in January 1973 a majority of the electorate voted in favour of entering the EEC. A policy of progressive integration with Europe began, as well as a search for new markets for ailing British industry.
A new divorce law was passed in 1975. The same year, feminists campaigned successfully against restrictions being added to the 1967 abortion law.
In May of 1977, after the ‘winter of discontent’, characterized by strikes, the Conservative Party won the election, with Margaret Thatcher as its leader. The new Prime Minister brought in a severe monetarist policy to bring down inflation. She began to reverse the nationalization process carried out under Labour, and returned to a free market policy.

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In April 1982, Thatcher sent a Royal Navy force, including aircraft carriers and nuclear submarines, to the Malvinas islands (Falklands) which had been occupied by troops from the military junta in Argentina. After 45 days of fighting the British recovered the islands for the Crown.
In October 1983, the British Government decided to withdraw its troops from Belize. The following year, in agreement with a treaty dating back to the First Opium War, Britain ceded sovereignty over Hong Kong to the People’s Republic of China, with effect from June 1997. In February 1990, the United Kingdom and Argentina renewed diplomatic relations.
In 1987, Thatcher was elected to her third consecutive term in office. She continued her policies as before: radical economic liberalization, privatization of state corporations, and opposition to union demands. In foreign affairs, Britain opposed greater European Community integration and continued to align itself closely with the US.
In November 1990 Thatcher was replaced as head of the Government and Tory leader by her former minister, John Major. Upon taking office, Major declared himself to be in favor of capitalism with a human face, thus setting himself apart from the reality of the ‘Iron Lady’s’ harsh capitalism.
In 1991, Major announced that the Poll Tax would be replaced, and promoted the adoption of a bill of rights for the sick, for working women, the consumer and the family, among other social categories. However, Major continued most of Thatcher’s reforms, including that of the health system and the selling-off of nationalized industries such as the railways.
In European affairs, the Prime Minister distanced himself from his predecessor. In 1991, London gave its backing to European agreements on monetary union. However, the fidelity which British diplomacy showed towards the US remained unaltered, as proven by British aid to the US in the Gulf War.
The Government managed to bring down inflation (which dropped from 10 per cent to 3.8 per cent between 1990 and 1991) and interest rates (which decreased from 15 per cent to 9.5 per cent), but economic activity remained stagnant. In 1991, industrial production declined and numerous small businesses failed. Unemployment continued to rise (over 9 per cent by late 1991), and now affected white-collar workers and professionals, groups which had supported Thatcher’s neo-liberal policies.
Within this context, Major’s personal popularity (the highest in British history since Winston Churchill) did not translate itself into a similar level of support for his party. In the local elections held at the end of April 1991, the Tories lost 800 council seats and several of its traditional districts, while Labour gained more than 400 council seats. In these elections, the Liberal Democratic Party also made important gains.

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The Labour Party, led by Tony Blair since July 1994, pursued its ‘modernization’ program, eliminating Clause Four of the Party’s constitution which aimed at ‘the common ownership of the means of production, distribution and exchange’.
Labour won a landslide victory in the May 1997 general elections, and Tony Blair took office as Prime Minister. The Conservatives suffered a crushing defeat, taking only 30 per cent of the vote to Labour’s 43.1 - a difference unprecedented so far this century - forcing changes in its leadership. However, the new government kept to spending limits planned by the Conservatives, keeping nurses and other public-sector workers on their low pay. The Government also adopted right-of-center policies on law and order, defense and social welfare.
Chancellor Gordon Brown told Parliament in October that the country would not be adopting the Euro (common currency unit within the EU) in January 1999, but would consider joining after the next general election. Denmark and the UK were the only European countries granted a special clause exempting them from the monetary union.
Referenda held in Wales and Scotland in 1997 came out in favour of greater independent powers for the regions. In early 1998, negotiations on Northern Ireland allowed a new peace formula to be drawn up. Submitted to referendum in May, the proposal gained more than 70 per cent approval in the province. That same month, Londoners approved an amendment allowing direct election of the mayor of London. Abstention ran at 66 per cent, but 72 per cent of those who did vote approved the change, making the post of mayor of London the first executive post to be filled by direct vote in the country.
Under the ‘Good Friday Agreement’, Northern Ireland would have a legislative assembly, directly elected by the people, the same as Wales and Scotland. Alongside this, a referendum in Ireland brought 95 per cent support for ending any territorial claim over Northern Ireland, leaving the way clear for the people of Ulster to decide on their own. The nomination of Northern Ireland members of parliament David Trimble (Ulster Unionist) and John Hume (SDLP) for the Nobel Peace Prize in October 1998 helped create a feeling of common cause between the Protestant and Catholic communities.
During 1999 the Northern Irish Loyalist and Nationalist parties made commitments to joint government, which culminated with the establishment of an executive in December. The two-community cabinet was to operate under the leadership of David Trimble as First Minister and included Sinn Féin: Gerry Adams and Martin McGuinness of Sinn Féin were on the executive until January 2000 when it was suspended after the Unionists withdrew. Sovereignty went back to London until May.
To end, a brief economy overview: the UK deploys an essentially capitalistic economy, one of the quartets of trillion dollar economies of Western Europe. Over the past two decades the government has greatly reduced public ownership and contained the growth of social welfare programs. Agriculture is intensive, highly mechanized, and efficient by European standards, producing about 60% of food needs with only 1% of the labor force. The UK has large coal, natural gas, and oil reserves; primary energy production

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accounts for 10% of GDP (Gross Domestic Product), one of the highest shares of any industrial nation. Services, particularly banking, insurance, and business services, account by far for the largest proportion of GDP while industry continues to decline in importance. The economy has grown steadily, at just above or below 3%, for the last several years.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
- HIBBERT, Christopher. The Story of England. Phaidon Press Limited, London 1999.
- MITIDIERI, Aldo A. Readings From English Literature. Komedi, Campinas, 2001.
- A Short Historical Sketch of Britain – Apostila utilizada durante o curso.
- Central Intelligence Agency: http://www.odci.gov/cia/publications/factbook/index.html. (acessado em 27.07.2002)
- European Adventures: http://europeanadventures.homestead.com/ (acessado em 27.07.2002)