2. Energy in Substances
● All objects have internal energy (U)
● This is because the internal particles are
vibrating randomly in the substance and there
are electrical forces between them.
● Internal energy is the sum of the kinetic and
potential energies of the internal particles of a
substance.
● The potential energy is due mainly to the electric
fields between the particles, both bonding and
intermolecular
3. Energy in a Substance
● The energy in an object is internal energy
● The transfer of energy between objects by
non-mechanical methods is thermal energy.
● The temperature of a body is a measure of the
average internal kinetic energy of the
particles in the substance.
4. Energy Flows
● Internal Energy flows as thermal energy from
areas of high temperature to areas of low
temperature.
● The rate of flow is directly proportional to the
temperature difference between the two
objects.
● This means that the internal energy of the
colder object increases at the same rate as the
internal energy of the hot object decreases.
6. Energy Flows
● Thermal Energy can transferred by 3 methods
● It can be conducted by molecules vibrating into
the ones around it
● It can be convected, where energy moves due
to the movement of particles
● It can be radiated where the energy is given off
as electromagnetic waves due to the
temperature of the object.
7. Energy Flows - Conduction
● Conduction works best in solids than in fluids.
● Conduction is due to the particles vibrating into
each other causing the energy to be transferred
from one to the next
● Conduction works
better in metals
than non-metals
due to the addition
of free electrons.
8. Energy Flows - Convection
● Convection works as a method of thermal transfer in
fluids.
● As one area of fluid warms up, the particles move further
apart from each other.
● This means there the local
density decreases.
● Colder, higher density fluid
flows in from the
surroundings pushing the
warm fluid upwards and
taking the energy with it.
9. Energy Flows - Radiation
● All hot objects emit electromagnetic radiation of various wavelengths.
● This is due to the vibration of the charges in the object causing
radiation to be emitted.
● The hotter the object the higher the peak intensity, and the wider the
spectrum emitted
● The rate of emission also
depends on the surface
nature.
● Dull black bodies are better
emitters and absorbers than
shiny silver surfaces
10. Temperature Scales
● The thermal energy absorbed or emitted by a
body cannot be directly measured.
● The temperature, the average kinetic energy
per molecule, can be measured using a
thermometer.
● The common scales are Celsius, Fahrenheit and
Kelvin.
11. Temperature Scales
● A temperature scale is usually defined by either two
fixed points, or 1 fixed point and a fixed interval.
● Celsius is defined by the fixed points of the melting and
boiling point of pure water at standard pressures. (0 and
100 o
C)
● Fahrenheit is defined by the coldest temperature that
could be achieved in a lab at the time (0F) and the
blood temperature of a race horse (100F)
● The kelvin scale is a measure of the absolute
temperature of an object and is defined as 0K is the
coldest temperature possible with an interval equal to
1o
C.
12. Kelvin Temperatures
● As temperature is proportional to the kinetic
energy of the molecules, it makes no sense to
talk of negative temperature.
● Negative Kinetic energy doesn't exist!)
● The Kelvin scale avoids this problem and must
always be used in thermodynamics questions.
● The Celsius and Kelvin temperatures are linked
by:
T K = C
o
273.16
13. Absolute Zero
● At a temperature of 0K, the average kinetic
energy of the particles is zero. They are not
moving on average.
● This temperature is called absolute zero and is
currently thought to be -273.15o
C.
● However, this cannot be actually attained in the
laboratory.
14. Particles in Substances
● When we think about substances we often think
about their macroscopic properties.
● Mass, dimension, average temperature.
● However, we sometimes need to think about
the properties of individual particles.
● These are the microscopic properties.
● Internal energy, molecular mass, shape.
15. Particles in Substances
● A sample of a pure elemental substance will
contain a fixed number of atoms.
● The amount of substance is known as the mole
(mol)
● The number of atoms in 1 mole of carbon-12 is
the same as the number of atoms in 1 mole of
uranium-238.
● Clearly, these will not have the same total mass.
16. Molar Mass
Molar Mass=
Mass of substance(g)
number of moles
M =
m
n
● The mass of 1 mole of substance is given by:
● By definition, 12g of carbon-12 is defined to
contain 1 mol of atoms.
● Therefore 238g of uranium-238 has 1 mol of
atoms.
● The molar mass of the elements can be found from
the periodic table (atomic mass)
17. Avagadro's Number
● Avagadro's found that equal volumes of different gases at
standard temperature and pressure contained equal
numbers of atoms.
● STP = 273K & 101.3kPa
● The number of particles in one mole of any gas is the
Avagadro number.
● It is defined as NA
=6.022x1023
mol-1
● The actual number of entities in a sample is thus:
● N is the number of particles, n is the number of moles.
N = N A n
18. Molecular Mass
● It is often important to work with molecules and
not elements.
● e.g. SiO2
, O2
, CO2
● To find the mass of 1 mole of this molecule,
simply sum the atomic masses of each
component atom.
● e.g. SiO2
– 28 + 2x16 = 60g mol-1
19. Questions
● Express the following temperature in K
● 22o
C, 45o
C, 37o
C, 578o
C, -96o
C
● Express the following temperatures in o
C.
● 6600K, 75K, 4K, 373K, 687K
● Calculate the number of moles present in:
● 82g of O2
, 76g of H2
, 97g of H2
O, 350g of Fe2
O3
● Calculate the number of atoms present in:
● 24g of SiO2
, 98g of Al2
O3
, 45g of NH4
NO3