1. Memory and Knowledge

2. A Model of Information Processing
Exposure,
Attention
Perception Understanding Outcome:
Attitudes
sensations information
Memory / Prior Knowledge
Individual
Consumer
Environmental
Characteristics
Stimuli
beliefs

3. 3
Exhibit 4.1:
Chapter
Overview --
Memory and
Knowledge

4. Chapter Overview
4
 What Is Memory?
 What Are the Types of Memory?
 How Memory Is Enhanced
 Knowledge Content, Structure and Flexibility
 Retrieval Failures and Errors
 How Retrieval Is Enhanced

5. Memory and its functions
5
Memory: “Personal storehouse of knowledge”
Retrieval: “The process of remembering”
Knowledge and Attitudes <--> Memory
Memory and Retrieval <--> Decision Making

6. Taxonomy of Memory
6
Memory
Sensory memory Short-term memory Long-term memory
Episodic memory Semantic
memory

7. Memory: Process Flow
7
Long-term
memory
Short-term
Memory
Sensory
Input
Sensory
Memory
Attention
Encoding
Retrieval
Recirculation

8. Types of Memory
 Sensory Memory
 Sensory experiences stored temporarily in memory
 Short-Term Memory (STM)
 Where incoming information is encoded
 Limited: can hold only a few pieces of information at a time
 Short-Lived: cannot hold information for very long
 Discursive vs. Imagery Processing
 Dual-Coding
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9. Types of Memory (cont.)
 Long-Term Memory (LTM)
 Where information is permanently stored for later use
 Autobiographical (Episodic) Memory
 Past experiences  primarily sensory (e.g. images, sounds)
 Acquisitions, consumption episodes, dispositions etc.
 Semantic Memory
 Knowledge about “things”
 Detach from specific episodes
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10. 10
Explicit or Implicit
 Explicit Memory
Consumers are consciously aware that they remember something
 Recognition: Determining whether the stimulus has been
encountered before
 Recall:Ability to retrieve information (free recall vs. cued
recall)
 Implicit Memory
Consumers are NOT consciously aware that they remember
something

11. 11
Explicit Memory
 Recall
“Please name all the brands of hamburgers that you can think of…”
----------------------------- -----------------------------
----------------------------- -----------------------------
----------------------------- -----------------------------
 Recognition
“Please check all the brands of hamburgers that you have
heard of…”
___ McDonalds ____Triple O’s
____Mos Burger ____Freshness Burger
____Burger King ____Si Sun Fast Food
____KFC ____Monster Burger

12. 12
Implicit Memory
Free Association
◦ “What is the first word that comes
to mind when I mention
McDonalds?”
Fragment Completion
• “Fill in the blanks to make a word.”
 s _ o _
• Stem Completion
• “Fill in the blanks to make a word.”
 d i s _ _ _

13. How Memory Is Enhanced
 Chunking
 Grouping items to process them as a unit
 Rehearsal
 Actively reviewing information in LTM
 Recirculation
 Simple repetition of information within STM
 Elaboration
 Processing information more deeply
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Y=mx+b
Y=mx+b
Y=mx+b
Y=mx+b

14. 14
389610578

15. Knowledge Content: Schemas
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The set of associations linked to a concept
 Schemas
 We have schemas for everything
 Places, people, brands, even ourselves!
 Scripts: sequence of actions

16. Professional Singer Idol

17. 17
Associative networks
Link Strength: Strength of
associations
◦ Stronger link  More accessible
Spreading of Activation:
Remembering one thing from another
◦ Depending on MAO
◦ Priming: Activation outside conscious
awareness
• Favorability, uniqueness, salience

18. Schema example
McDonalds ?

19. 1919
Associative Network
McDonald’s
Big Mac
Fries
Tasty
Convenient
LG5
Burger King
Noodles and
Congee
Cathay Pacific
Good service

22. Knowledge Content (cont.)
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 Images
 Brand Image: A set of distinctive associations stored in a brand schema
 Brand Personality: The set of associations that reflects “human” aspects of the
brand
 Applications
 Brand Extension: Same brand name, different category – leverage the existing
schema
 Licensing: Sell the rights to your brand name
 Brand Alliance: Two brand names on one product
 Repositioning: Changing schemas, images, or personalities
 Product crisis: brand personality

23. Knowledge Structure
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 Taxonomic categorization
 A system of classification
 Maximal vs. minimal similarity
 Properties: Graded and hierarchical
 Graded structure
 Category members are different in terms of how well they represent
the category

24. Prototypes
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The “best example” of a category
 Example:
 Theme park:
 Canned soup:
 Cereal:
 Ketchup:
 What Affects Prototypicality
 Maximum shared associations within a category; minimum across
categories
 Frequency of experienced membership
 Pioneer / first-mover

25. Knowledge Structure (cont.)
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 Hierarchical Structure (e.g. Park N Shop)
 Superordinate Level
 Basic Level
 Subordinate Level
 Correlated Associations
 Associations that frequently occur together within a schema

26. 26
Exhibit 4.6: Hierarchical Structure
RESTAURANT
S
Fast-food,
Cafes
Western,
Japanese
McDonalds,
Mos Burger

27. Knowledge Flexibility
 Goal-Derived Categories
 Classifying things together because they satisfy the same goals
 Different way of categorizing (as opposed to taxonomic categorization)
 E.g. things to buy for a party
 Construal Level Theory: high vs. low construal
 High construal: abstract thinking (e.g. desirability)
 Low construal: concrete thinking (e.g. feasibility)
 Factors: time; geographical distance

28. Why Consumers Differ in Knowledge
 Culture (different sets of associations, category members,
prototypes, etc.)
 Level of Expertise (“Ability” to process new information –
experts vs. novices)

29. Retrieval: Accessing information from the
semantic network
 Retrieval Failures
 Decay: Weakening of nodes or links over time
 Sleeper effect: remember the message, but not the
source
 Interference: Signals getting mixed up
 E.g. similar ads
 Primacy and Recency Effects
 Greater memory for information that comes first or
last in a sequence
 Retrieval Errors
 Memory is subject to distortion and confusion

30. 30
Retrieval: Marketing Implications
 As a communication objective
 Increase recall of brand name, attributes, benefits, etc.
 Influencing consumer choices
 Internal search  useful input for attitudes and choice
 Advertising effectiveness
 Measures of recognition, recall, persistence
 Segmentation
 Segment the customers according to how well they can remember

31. 31
How Retrieval Is Enhanced
Characteristics of the Stimulus
◦ Salience: e.g. multipage ads
◦ Prototypicality
◦ Redundant cues: information that go together naturally
◦ Medium in which the stimulus was processed
What the Stimulus Is LinkedTo
◦ Retrieval Cues: Stimuli that facilitate the activation of memory
◦ Internal cues
◦ External cues: e.g. brand name, logos, packages

32. The Geico gecko is a classic example of an effective retrieval cue. Just seeing
the little lizard evokes the insurance company’s brand name. Geico has used
repetition to ensure that the gecko/Geico link is stored in consumers’ long-
term memory.While the message is the same, the execution of the ads
changes to prevent habituation and wear-out.
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33. How Retrieval Is Enhanced
 How a Stimulus Is Processed in STM
 Imagery processing: processing of information in sensory form
 Discursive processing: processing of information as words
 Dual Coding: Imagery + Discursive Processing
 Consumer Characteristics
 Mood
 Expertise
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