1. Internationalisation of the Media Tends to
Undermine National Cultures
By: Yusuf Kurniawan
Introduction
The emergence of global media industries at present have really changed the face of
the globe. The world is just like wired and closely connected, so that nearly anything
happens in one place would be easily and quickly covered and reported to all over
the world. Our globe has just turned into a ‘global village’, such as what McLuhan says
“…we have extended our central nervous system itself in a global embrace,
abolishing both space and time as far as our planet is concerned…As electrically
contracted, the globe is no more than a village.” 1 The spread and flow of news across
the globe has probably reached its fastest speed. News and information are mostly
two things that are always expected to arrive quickly by audience. They are the things
that nearly everybody wants to listen, watch and read from mass media everyday.
This caused the rise of competition amongst media industries to attract
audiences. And within the tough competition to gain more audience, they will be
confronted to each other. To win the competition media industries would do
anything that enable them to grow bigger. The advanced technologies, economic
pressure, and policies of liberalisation have introduced a complexity of new forces,
which are transforming the local/national media into international ones.
Consequently, competition amongst the media industries to ‘sell’ their products
became inevitable. Particularly with the ascending liberalisation of media and press
around the world has made the media grow increase quickly as well. The
consequence of this competition forces media industries to build their own distinct
profiles and identities in order to be able to gain good reputation in public sphere.
One of the ways media industries have to compete with others is by
internationalising their institutions. With internationalisation media industries can
have more opportunities in gaining more audience.
McLuhan, Marshal (1964), Understanding Media, Routledge, London, p.11-12.
1

2. 2
The big changes in media industries have commenced just about twenty years
ago. Dramatic restructuring of national media industries was started since the early
1980s that was then followed with the emergence of genuinely global commercial
media market. 2 And it has actually been begun since the early of the nineteenth
century where media industries showed significant development. The changes mostly
occurred in three things, namely (1) the transformation of media institutions into
large-scale commercial concerns; (2) the globalisation of communication; and (3) the
development of electronically mediated forms of communication. 3 Through mergers,
take-overs and diversification, media enterprises became mightier and bigger. The
big change also happened in the ownership of the media industries such as the
purchase of Tri-Star Pictures by Sony, MGM/ United Artists by Pathe SA, an Italian
company and the purchase of 20th Century Fox by Rupert Murdoch. 4
Internationalisation and globalisation of media
Before I discuss further I would like to differentiate between internationalisation and
globalisation of media since these two terms have a slight difference. The concept of
internationalisation of media refers to “the process by which the ownership,
structure, production, distribution, or content of a country’s media is influenced by
foreign media interests, culture and markets.” 5 It can be noticed from the perspective
of the country that imports foreign media culture and from that of the exporting
country as well. It is more specifically dealing with two or several countries that are
involved within the internationalisation. For example between Indonesia and China,
in which Indonesia imported TV programmes from China or vice versa. So that if
there is an effect or influence that is caused by the internationalisation, then it will
only influence these two countries. Therefore the effect or influence is more specific
and limited in its scope.
Herman, Edward S., & McChesney, Robert W., (1997), The Global Media: the new missionaries of corporate
2
capitalism, Cassell, London, p.1.
3 Thompson, John B., (2000), The Media and Modernity: A Social Theory of the Media, Polity Press,
Cambridge, p. 76.
4 Sreberny-Mohammadi, Annabelle (1997) ‘The Global and the Local in International
Communications’ in Curran, James and Gurevitch, Michael, eds, Mass Media and Society, Arnold,
London, p.185.
5 Chan, Joseph Man (1994), “Media Internationalisation in China: Process and Tensions” in Journal of
Communication Vol. 44, p.71.

3. 3
Whilst globalisation of media is related with the making of media become
universal that it tends to ignore national boundaries of a country. And it is seen as
“multi-directional and multi-dimensional set of process”. 6 For instance like
Hollywood. Nearly every country in the world imports films from Hollywood, so it
could be seen that the effect of Hollywood is considered universal. However, still
there are places that lack of facilities of media that cause people unable to access
media. It is because the distribution of media is still not absolutely covering every
corner of the world. So, it means that the word ‘global’ does not always mean
universal. As it is argued by Sreberny-Mohammadi that “The global trend is in place,
yet by no means ‘achieved’. Global still does not mean universal.” 7
Local/national media enterprises that have been transformed into transnational
corporations (TNC) will be easier in exporting or importing media products. The
growth of TNCs was among others signified with the emergence of media moguls
like Rupert Murdoch, Silvio Berlusconi and Henry Luce with the Warner Brothers.
They have created corporate structures that span across continents, handle print and
film production and also control distribution facilities like satellites and cable
networks. 8
The internationalisation of media within this essay should be comprehended
differently from media imperialism. It is stated by Boyd-Barrett and Lee that “Media
internationalisation is different from media imperialism. 9 The former means that local
or national media of every country has potentiality to influence other nations. Even
the weak countries also have that possibility as the western superpowers as well.
Whilst media imperialism is only one form of media internationalisation. 10
The internationalisation of the media bears possibility of carrying foreign
cultural values that might be disadvantageous or even harmful to the existence of
Barker, Chris (1997), Global Television: An Introduction, Blackwell, Oxford, p.5.
6
Sreberny-Mohammadi, Annabelle (1997) ‘The Global and the Local in International
7
Communications’ in Curran, James and Gurevitch, Michael, eds, Mass Media and Society, Arnold,
London, p.183.
8 Sreberny-Mohammadi, Annabelle (1997) ‘The Global and the Local in International
Communications’ in Curran, James and Gurevitch, Michael, eds, Mass Media and Society, Arnold,
London, p.183.
9 Boyd-Barret and Lee in Chan, Joseph Man (1994), “Media Internationalisation in China: Processes
and Tensions” in Journal of Communication, Vol.44., p.71.
10 Ibid.

4. 4
national or local culture. The influences of the internationalisation of the media have
at least three major fields, namely on politics, economics and culture. Within this
essay I would only focus on culture and little bit on economy. We can not just accept
that the internationalisation of media tends to undermine national cultures. It appeals
many opinions of many analysts that I would discuss within this essay.
Analysis
Capitalists modernity have been expanding their multinational media industries that
span across the globe. Besides the phenomenon of the more increasing number of
audience and television sets owned by people we should also look at the changing
character of television, the growing organisation of television which is now relatively
more commercial rather than public-service. 11 If we pay close attention to most of
television stations nowadays they have undergone many changes both the TV
contents/programmes and technological advancement of their equipment since
television is not only as technology but cultural form as well. 12
Every medium will always carry influence that might have impact toward
audience particularly and social milieu in general. Because most big media industries
are mostly dominated by western countries, then there emerge an anxiety that media
products from western countries will flow more freely to other countries by the
internationalisation of the media. It does open more chance of the intrusion of
foreign cultures through the imported media products such as television programmes
and advertisements. This anxiety makes sense since many western countries,
especially the United States sells many of its media products much cheaper to the
Third World countries than in the United States itself. For example based on the
study done by Livingston in Jamaica, about 75% of the contents of local television
stations comprises foreign media content (in particular US).” 13 This such
internationalisation takes place only when foreign media products are widely
Barker, Chris (1997), Global Television: An Introduction, Blackwell, Oxford, p.4.
11
Ibid.,p.5
12
13 White, Livingston A. (2001), “Development imperatives for local television programming and
production in Jamaica: Identifying appropriate and feasible alternatives”, paper submitted for
presentation at the 42nd Annual International Studies Associations Convention (International
Communication Section), Chicago, Illinois, 20-24, February 2001.

5. 5
perceived by audience to be more interesting than domestic ones. 14 Even, in
Thailand, there is a tendency of importing cultural content and technology and
develop local imitations… borrowing from foreign (mainly Western) cultures. 15
- Cultural Imperialism
The term cultural imperialism was popular in the 1970s. 16 Even though this term has
been obsolete, this issue is still up-to-date. According to Herman and McChesney
cultural imperialism is defined as “the domination of entertainment programming
across the Third World that implanted western values on audiences.” 17 It is one of
the three intellectual paradigms that have been dominating the field of International
Communication since the 1960s, they are: ‘communications and development’,
‘cultural imperialism’ itself, and ‘cultural pluralism’. 18 However, in this essay the
writer would like to highlight merely the ‘cultural imperialism’. This term is often
discussed whenever theorists debate on globalisation and internationalisation of the
media.
Cultural imperialism refers to ‘dependency’ paradigm that was initially
developed in Latin America and it is building on other critiques of imperialism. 19 It is
argued by the specific model of ‘cultural imperialism’ that the international
technology transfer and media hardware combined with the flows of ‘software’ of
cultural products virtually strengthened dependency and prevented true
Chan, Joseph Man (1994), “Media Internationalisation in China: Processes and Tensions” in Journal
14
of Communication, Vol.44., p.73.
15 Servaes, J. (1999), Communication for Development – One World, Multiple Cultures, Hampton Press, New
York, p. 225.
16 McAnany, Emile G. and Wilkinson, Kenton T. (1992), ‘From Cultural Imperislists to Takeover
Victims? Questions on Hollywood’s Buyouts from the Critical Tradition’ in Communication Research,
Vol.19 No 6, December 1992 724-748, Sage Publications, Inc., London, p.725.
17 Herman, Edward S., & McChesney, Robert W., (1997), The Global Media: the new missionaries of
corporate capitalism, Cassell, London, p.23-4.
18 Sreberny-Mohammadi, Annabelle (1997) ‘The Global and the Local in International
Communications’ in Curran, James and Gurevitch, Michael, eds, Mass Media and Society, Arnold,
London, p.178.
19 Gunder-Frank, A. (1964) in Sreberny-Mohammadi, Annabelle (1997) ‘The Global and the Local in
International Communications’ in Curran, James and Gurevitch, Michael, eds, Mass Media and Society,
Arnold, London, p.179.

6. 6
development. 20 It is mostly undergone by the Third World countries that import
media products from western countries.
Cultural imperialism is comprehended as two things, firstly in terms of the
imposition of one national culture upon another with the media seen as the carriers
of cultural meanings that penetrate and dominate the cultures of a nation. And other
version states that “cultural imperialism is represented by a set of economic and
cultural processes that are implicated in the reproduction of global capitalism.” 21
The process of technological exchange and adoption bears the same risk as
adopting or importing cultural product from other country. Behind it lies the
possibility of carrying an influence that might undermine the national cultures values
of the country that adopts or imports it. Countries that commonly have the risk of
receiving cultural products from other countries are the Third World ones. Even
though ‘cultural imperialism’ also deals with exporting media products to other
countries or vice versa, the United States still dominates. That’s why it is frequently
connected with America when a certain media culture is adopted. As Tunstall says:
The cultural imperialism thesis claims that authentic, traditional and local culture in many
parts of the world is being battered out of existence by the indiscriminate dumping of
large quantities of slick commercial and media products, mainly from the United
States. 22
Moreover, Sreberny Mohammadi adds that western cultural values are often made
identical to ‘American’ values, for instance like consumerism and individualism. And
they are implicitly expressed in various media genre and also through advertising that
are ultimately changing Third World cultural milieu. 23
are exported and they
Transnational corporations are expert in marketing their media products to all over
the world. They will use any strategy to approach audience, so that audience will not
be aware of what they consume, do or use. For instance Hollywood films, they are
Sreberny-Mohammadi, Annabelle (1997) ‘The Global and the Local in International
20
Communications’ in Curran, James and Gurevitch, Michael, eds, Mass Media and Society, Arnold,
London, p.179.
21 Barker, Chris (1999), TV, Globalization & Cultureal Identities: Issues in cultural and media studies, Open
University Press, Philadelphia, p.37. See also Tomlinson, John (1991), p.5.
22 Tomlinson, John (1991), Cultural Imperialism: A Critical Introduction, Printer Publishers, London, p.8.
23 Sreberny-Mohammadi, Annabelle (1997) ‘The Global and the Local in International
Communications’ in Curran, James and Gurevitch, Michael, eds, Mass Media and Society, Arnold,
London, p.179.

7. 7
U.S products that have been spread out world wide. And most of audiences do not
care whether the Hollywood film will have impact to them or not. They know that
they watch American film, but they have just taken it for granted. It is also supported
by Naficy (1993) in Varan that “audiences may think with American cultural
products but they do not think American.” 24
The forms and effects of imported cultural products
There are a lot of forms of influence and effects of imported cultural products that
are caused by the internationalisation of media. The cultural forms and values we are
now confronted with in our daily life and social milieu are probably not genuinely
from our own country. Many things have altered without our recognition. It can be
identified that remote cultures now become accessible via various electronic media
such as television and radio. 25 Television medium mostly became inevitably a window
of foreign culture transmission. It can be found out in our daily life, from the way of
life until the goods or products consumed or used by people.
- Television Programmes
As the consequence of the internationalisation of the television medium, TV stations
(particularly commercial televisions) are beginning to import TV programs from
other countries or export their TV programs abroad. Moreover, with the emergence
of satellites and cable distribution of programming have dramatically increased the
number of channels available in many countries in the 1990s. 26 And nearly everybody
could watch or access satellite TV through the dish from their own homes as long as
they have the facilities.
Soap operas are one of the most favourite TV programs at the moment.
Especially those that are broadcast in Asian countries, either soap operas which are
produced domestically or soap operas that are manufactured abroad or imported
Varan, Duane (1998), ‘The Cultural Erosion Metaphor and the Transcultural Impact of Media
24
Systems’ in Journal of Communication, Spring 1998, Vol 48, p.67.
25 Barker, Chris (1999), TV, Globalization and Cultural Identities: Issues in culture and media studies, Open
University Press, Philadelphia, p.36.
26 Herman, Edward S., & McChesney, Robert W., (1997), The Global Media: the new missionaries of
corporate capitalism, Cassell, London, p.45.

8. 8
from other countries. It was pointed out by Antola and Rogers 27 that telenovelas
from Spain and Latin America in the USA has been called ‘reverse cultural
imperialism’, because it shows an example of how contemporary cultural flows
reverse the historic role of imperialism. For instance the major Brazilian network
exports telenovelas to 128 countries. 28 And its production outnumbered any other
stations in the world.
Formats of foreign television programmes also most likely becomes the
threshold of foreign cultures. This kind of TV programmes reproduction can be
much cheaper than if a broadcaster has to buy the final version of programmes. For
instance, Who wants to be a millionaire format has already been sold to 50 countries. 29
Some of them are broadcast in original format but some have been altered. Or
sometimes the formats of television programs are adjusted to local culture to meet
the taste of local audience. Many quizzes formats have been imported from the
United States and United Kingdom, such as Who Wants to be a Millionaire, Candid
Camera, America’s Funniest Home Videos. It is noted by Hamelink that “local
programmes are produced according to US formats. Even small television networks
in poor countries unquestioningly follow the western example of broadcasting as
many hours as possible.” 30
Other evidence was also stated by Ouderkirk. 31 He describes that whilst she was
climbing up the highest Guatemalan mountains in search of some distant and
authentic Qeche Indians, he was hearing some stirring music which as she
approached was in fact the old Beatles tapes.
Antola and Rogers in Sreberny-Mohammadi, Annabelle (1997) ‘The Global and the Local in
27
International Communications’ in Curran, James and Gurevitch, Michael, eds, Mass Media and Society,
Arnold, London, p.180.
28 Sreberny-Mohammadi, Annabelle (1997) ‘The Global and the Local in International
Communications’ in Curran, James and Gurevitch, Michael, eds, Mass Media and Society, Arnold,
London, p.180.
29 Freedman, Des (2001), Who Wants to be a Millionaire?: The Politics of Television Exports, Paper presented
to the International Communication section of the International Studies Association Convention,
Chicago, 20-24 February 2001, p.15.
30 Hamelink, C.J. (1983), Cultural Autonomy in Global Communications: Planning National Information Policy,
Longman, New York, p.3.
31 Ouderkirk in Sreberny-Mohammadi, Annabelle (1997) ‘The Global and the Local in International
Communications’ in Curran, James and Gurevitch, Michael, eds, Mass Media and Society, Arnold,
London, p.186.

9. 9
- Films domination
Aside from what I have described above, films are also one of the forms of cultures
that might be undermined by foreign cultures. It is Hollywood that dominates nearly
all the films in all over the world. After its decline in the late 1950s, Hollywood began
to expand and build its power again in the middle of the 1960s. 32 Since its resurgence
Hollywood became the biggest films exporter on nearly the whole earth. It has
become the big transnational corporation (TNC) that is very difficult to be defeated.
Still as the consequence of the successful vertical integration of Hollywood, the flow
of films distribution around the world could be strongly felt. Every where most of
the films we watch are Hollywood-manufactured.
Conclusion
Based on the analysis given, the internationalisation of the media is more limited
between or among several countries in which the internationalisation occurs. And it
could become the threshold of the entering new cultures from other countries.
However, it can not be proven that the internationalisation of media tends to
undermine national cultures. The examples which are taken from some researches do
not show direct influence that might have impact to national cultures. It shows the
dominance of foreign culture in one country. And up to now, the concerns about
cultural dominance, or whether it is called imperialism or hegemony is still ongoing issue
in many countries. 33
Even though many media products are produced by U.S. corporations, it does
not mean that they will be able to dominate or even replace a local culture easily. At
least it is proven in Brazil that its national and local television programmes keep on
going (especially the enduring success of its telenovelas) though the U.S.
programming has come into Latin American life. 34 At last, I would like to argue that
actually internationalisation of media can not be judged directly that it tends to
Dominick, J.R. (1996) The Dynamics of Mass Communication. New York: Mc Graw-Hill Publishing
32
Company, p.264
33 McAnany, Emile G. and Wilkinson, Kenton T. (1992), ‘From Cultural Imperislists to Takeover
Victims? Questions on Hollywood’s Buyouts from the Critical Tradition’ in Communication Research,
Vol.19 No 6, December 1992 724-748, Sage Publications, Inc., London, p.730.

10. 10
undermine national cultures. Still there are effects and influence, but they only
generate cultural diffusion between countries that in turn it will become hybrid culture..
Ibid,p.734.
34

11. 11
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Chan, Joseph Man (1994), ‘Media Internationalization in China: Process and
Tensions’ in Journal of Communication, Vol. 44.
Curran, James and Gurevitch, Michael, eds., Mass Media and Society, Arnold, London.
Barker, Chris (1999), TV, Globalization & Cultural Identities: Issues in cultural and media
studies, Open University Press, Philadelphia.
Barker, Martin in Tomlinson, John (1991), Cultural Imperialism: A Critical Introduction,
Printer Publishers, London.
Dominick, J.R. (1992) The Dynamics of Mass Communication. New York: Mc
Graw-Hill Publishing Company.
Freedman, Des (2001), Who Wants to be a Millionaire?: The Politics of Television Exports,
Paper presented to the International Communication section of the
International Studies Association Convention, Chicago, 20-24 February 2001.
Hamelink, C.J. (1983), Cultural Autonomy in Global Communications: Planning National
Information Policy, Longman, New York.
Herman, Edward S., & McChesney, Robert W., (1997), The Global Media: the new
missionaries of corporate capitalism, Cassell, London.
McLuhan, Marshal (1964), Understanding Media, Routledge, London.
Servaes, J. (1999), Communication for Development – One World, Multiple Cultures,
Hampton Press, New York.
Thompson, John B., (2000), The Media and Modernity: A Social Theory of the Media,
Polity Press, Cambridge.
Tomlinson, John (1991), Cultural Imperialism: A Critical Introduction, Printer Publishers,
London.
White, Livingston A. (2001), “Development imperatives for local television
programming and production in Jamaica: Identifying appropriate and feasible
alternatives”, paper submitted for presentation at the 42nd Annual International
Studies Associations Convention (International Communication Section),
Chicago, Illinois, 20-24, February 2001.
Varan, Duane (1998), ‘The Cultural Erosion Metaphor and the Transcultural Impact
of Media Systems’ in Journal of Communication, Spring 1998, Vol 48.