How the business buyer behaves

1. Chapter 2
Perspectives
on the
Organizational
Buyer

2. Chapter TopicsChapter Topics
Inside and outside forces influence organizational
buying. In this chapter you’ll learn about:
1.The organizational buying process
2.The four main factors that impact organizational
buying decisions
3.A model of organizational buying behavior
4.How knowledge of organizational buying
enables marketers to make more informed
decisions on product design, pricing and
promotion
22

3. Understanding the DynamicsUnderstanding the Dynamics
of Organizational Buyingof Organizational Buying
Market-driven firms sense market trends and workMarket-driven firms sense market trends and work
closely with their customers and vendors. This is crucialclosely with their customers and vendors. This is crucial
to:to:
Identify profitable market segmentsIdentify profitable market segments
Locate buying influences within segmentsLocate buying influences within segments
Reach organizational buyers efficiently and effectivelyReach organizational buyers efficiently and effectively
with an offerwith an offer
Each decision goes through various steps. Skipping aEach decision goes through various steps. Skipping a
step can be essential to the decision-making process.step can be essential to the decision-making process.

4. Buying as a Process
Buying is a process, not an event
There are various points in the process
that are referred to as “Critical Decision
Points” and “Evolving Information
Requirements”
It starts with “Problem Recognition”

5. Organizational
Buying
Process
1. Problem
Recognition
2. General
Description
of Need
3. Product
Specifications
4. Supplier
Search
5. Acquisition
and Analysis
of Proposals
6. Supplier
Selection
7. Selection
of
Order Routine
8. Performance
Review
Organizational Buying Process

6. 1. Problem Recognition1. Problem Recognition
Before anything is bought, most buyersBefore anything is bought, most buyers
need to be made aware of a problem.need to be made aware of a problem.

7. 1. Problem Recognition1. Problem Recognition
Internally:Internally:
A machine breaks downA machine breaks down
Someone needs to order a productSomeone needs to order a product
Someone recognizes an opportunity thatSomeone recognizes an opportunity that
can be captured by acquiring the productcan be captured by acquiring the product

8. 1. Problem Recognition1. Problem Recognition
Externally:Externally:
More often than not, it is the salesperson whoMore often than not, it is the salesperson who
precipitates the need for a new productprecipitates the need for a new product
Advertising also can influence purchasingAdvertising also can influence purchasing
Many organizations use the Push/PullMany organizations use the Push/Pull
StrategyStrategy

9. 2. General Description of Need2. General Description of Need
Once a need is recognized, the purchasing department
works with the buying group to define what is needed by
asking:
What is the extent of the problem?
What alternatives can solve the problem?
Where can the solution be purchased?
Each small decision ultimately helps define the product
specifications.
Sometimes the supplier is involved if the supplier
influences the sale (i.e., the supplier makes the buyer
aware of the need).

10. 3. Product Specifications3. Product Specifications
Many times the question boils down to:Many times the question boils down to:
1.1. Is it a new task buy?Is it a new task buy?
2.2. Is it a straight rebuy?Is it a straight rebuy?
3.3. Is it a modified rebuy?Is it a modified rebuy?
Buyers try to be objective and consider many ideas.Buyers try to be objective and consider many ideas.
Professional sellers try to influence this decision asProfessional sellers try to influence this decision as
early as possible in the buying process—if they can!early as possible in the buying process—if they can!

11. 3. Product Specifications3. Product Specifications
This is an important because it oftenThis is an important because it often
determines how the contract is structureddetermines how the contract is structured
and the specific wording that it uses.and the specific wording that it uses.

12. 4. Supplier Search4. Supplier Search
Who will be the supplier?Who will be the supplier?
The creating influencer has a lot ofThe creating influencer has a lot of
say about the choice of supplier. If asay about the choice of supplier. If a
salesperson creates the need, oftensalesperson creates the need, often
the specs are written so that only thethe specs are written so that only the
salesperson’s organization is able tosalesperson’s organization is able to
fulfill the contract.fulfill the contract.
In established businesses, oftenIn established businesses, often
only preferred vendors areonly preferred vendors are
considered.considered.

13. 5. Acquisition and Analysis of5. Acquisition and Analysis of
ProposalsProposals
This step occurs only when the buying organization lacksThis step occurs only when the buying organization lacks
adequate information to make a decision.adequate information to make a decision.
Proposals are presented in detail often by a teamProposals are presented in detail often by a team
engineers, users and purchasing agents. Successfulengineers, users and purchasing agents. Successful
proposals determine the supplier.proposals determine the supplier.
Many times, this step is perfunctory. The buyer mayMany times, this step is perfunctory. The buyer may
have already determined the preferred vendor, buthave already determined the preferred vendor, but
legally it may be necessary to seek other vendorlegally it may be necessary to seek other vendor
proposals to attain government contracts.proposals to attain government contracts.

14. 6. Supplier Selection6. Supplier Selection
At this point, negotiation includes not only monies,At this point, negotiation includes not only monies,
but also:but also:
1.1.QuantitiesQuantities
2.2.Delivery timesDelivery times
3.3.Level of serviceLevel of service
4.4.WarrantiesWarranties
5.5.Payment schedulesPayment schedules
6.6.And a host of final details that determine selectionAnd a host of final details that determine selection

15. 7. Selection of Order Routine7. Selection of Order Routine
Once the supplier is selected, the orderOnce the supplier is selected, the order
routines are establishedroutines are established

16. 8. Performance Review8. Performance Review
After receipt of the product or service, aAfter receipt of the product or service, a
performance review asks:performance review asks:
1.1.Did the supplier meet delivery time?Did the supplier meet delivery time?
2.2.Did the product meet the specs?Did the product meet the specs?
3.3.Does the contract have to be modified?Does the contract have to be modified?
4.4.Did the vendor live up to expectations?Did the vendor live up to expectations?

17. Buying ProcessBuying Process
Stages in the buying process are not asStages in the buying process are not as
sequential as suggested by the model.sequential as suggested by the model.
Sometimes steps are skipped. For example, onSometimes steps are skipped. For example, on
straight rebuys, buyers choose to purchasestraight rebuys, buyers choose to purchase
almost immediately.almost immediately.
However, the model represents importantHowever, the model represents important
aspects of how companies buy and evaluateaspects of how companies buy and evaluate
business purchases.business purchases.

18. Buying ProcessBuying Process
There are other events that influence theThere are other events that influence the
buying process, most notably:buying process, most notably:
1.1.Economic conditionsEconomic conditions
2.2.CompetitionCompetition
3.3.Basic shifts in the organizationalBasic shifts in the organizational
objectivesobjectives
4.The buying situation

19. Business Strategy ConsiderationsBusiness Strategy Considerations
The business marketer must always try toThe business marketer must always try to
understand the sale from the buyer’s perspectiveunderstand the sale from the buyer’s perspective
and do everything to make it easier for the buyerand do everything to make it easier for the buyer
to buy.to buy.

20. Business Strategy ConsiderationsBusiness Strategy Considerations
Marketers needs to understand:Marketers needs to understand:
1.1. Who are the decision makers?Who are the decision makers?
2.2. What are their problem(s)?What are their problem(s)?
3.3. What are their purchasing patterns?What are their purchasing patterns?
4.4. What is the importance of their purchase?What is the importance of their purchase?
5.5. What is the timing of the purchase?What is the timing of the purchase?

21. Forces Influencing Organizational BuyingForces Influencing Organizational Buying
BehaviorBehavior
Environmental
Forces
Organizational
Forces
Group
Forces
Individual
Forces
Organizational
Buying
Behavior
• Economic outlook:
domestic & global
• Pace of technological
change
• Global trade relations
• Goals, objectives and
strategies
• Organizational position
of purchasing
• Roles, relative
influence and patterns
of interaction of buying
decision participants
•Job function, past
experience, and buying
motives of individual
decision participants
A projected change in
business conditions
can alter buying plans
drastically.

22. Environmental Forces - EconomicEnvironmental Forces - Economic
InfluencesInfluences
Changes in the environment such as businessChanges in the environment such as business
conditions, technological advances or newconditions, technological advances or new
legislation can affect buying plans.legislation can affect buying plans.
Since much of business is driven by derivedSince much of business is driven by derived
demand, business marketers must be sensitivedemand, business marketers must be sensitive
to changes in the consumer market.to changes in the consumer market.
Also, the economy can determine a company’sAlso, the economy can determine a company’s
ability or willingness to buy. If the economy isability or willingness to buy. If the economy is
bad, companies often put off purchasing untilbad, companies often put off purchasing until
they see a change.they see a change.

23. Economic InfluencesEconomic Influences
Not all companies are affected equally. For
example, high interest rates may affect housing
starts but may not affect food products, medical
or transportation services.
Finally, there is an affect from foreign
competitors such as China and India. Both have
strong labor saving costs as a competitive
advantage.

24. Technological InfluencesTechnological Influences
Technology is changing so quickly that yesterday’sTechnology is changing so quickly that yesterday’s
technological advancement is today’s electronictechnological advancement is today’s electronic
commodity.commodity.
Example: ComputersExample: Computers
However, all companies need to stay alert to theseHowever, all companies need to stay alert to these
changes. For example, Blockbuster is feeling the pinchchanges. For example, Blockbuster is feeling the pinch
of Netflix, Internet and satellite movies-on-demand.of Netflix, Internet and satellite movies-on-demand.
Technological change—especially from the Internet—isTechnological change—especially from the Internet—is
drastically changing the way companies do business.drastically changing the way companies do business.

25. Technological ChangeTechnological Change
The Internet has leveled the playing field, allowing
competitors the opportunity to compete in the world’s
most technological advanced countries.
It affects not only entire companies (the printing industry
is struggling due to digital printing and electronic
communication), but also individual careers (an “A”
programmer in India can be purchased for $2-4/hour).

26. Organizational Forces &Organizational Forces &
Growing Influence of PurchasingGrowing Influence of Purchasing
As manufacturing has become less important,As manufacturing has become less important,
purchasing and procurement have become morepurchasing and procurement have become more
important.important.
Companies are outsourcing many activitiesCompanies are outsourcing many activities
such as manufacturing, marketing, accounting,such as manufacturing, marketing, accounting,
etc., yet procurement remains a strong influenceetc., yet procurement remains a strong influence
resulting in a shift to more professionalresulting in a shift to more professional
procurement positions.procurement positions.

27. Strategic Priorities inStrategic Priorities in
PurchasingPurchasing
As the purchasing profession grows, so do itsAs the purchasing profession grows, so do its
goals and priorities.goals and priorities.
Purchasers are more ambitious, resulting in a morePurchasers are more ambitious, resulting in a more
competitive environment. An effective marketingcompetitive environment. An effective marketing
strategy develops stronger and deeperstrategy develops stronger and deeper
relationships with purchasers.relationships with purchasers.
This is the impetus for Relationship Marketing.This is the impetus for Relationship Marketing.

28. Strategic Priorities in PurchasingStrategic Priorities in Purchasing
Aligning Purchasing
with Strategy, Not
Just Buyers
Shift from administrative role to
value-creating function that serves
internal stakeholders and provides
competitive edge in market.
Exploring New
Value Frontiers: It’s
Not Just About Price
Focus on suppliers’ capabilities,
emphasizing business outcomes,
total ownership costs, and
potential for long-term value
creation.

29. Strategic Priorities in PurchasingStrategic Priorities in Purchasing
• Putting SuppliersPutting Suppliers
Inside:Inside: The Best ValueThe Best Value
Chain WinsChain Wins
• Develop fewer and deeperDevelop fewer and deeper
relationships with strategicrelationships with strategic
suppliers and involve them insuppliers and involve them in
decision- making processes,decision- making processes,
ranging from new productranging from new product
development to cost-reductiondevelopment to cost-reduction
initiatives.initiatives.
• Pursuing Low-Cost
Sources: A World Worth
Exploring
Overcome hurdles imposed
by geographical differences
and seek out cost-effective
suppliers around globe.

30. Marketing StrategicMarketing Strategic
ConsiderationsConsiderations
As Purchasers develop their strategic roles, MarketersAs Purchasers develop their strategic roles, Marketers
respond by developing strategic alliances to become arespond by developing strategic alliances to become a
part of their business.part of their business.
Buyers and Sellers know that “the best value supplyBuyers and Sellers know that “the best value supply
chain wins” the customer…and the profits.chain wins” the customer…and the profits.
The result is closer relationships with carefully chosenThe result is closer relationships with carefully chosen
suppliers who can align their activities with customersuppliers who can align their activities with customer
needs.needs.
Example: At this time in history, Walmart is one of theExample: At this time in history, Walmart is one of the
best at accomplishing this activity!best at accomplishing this activity!

31. 3131
Procurement Manager’s Toolkit
Total Cost of Ownership
TCO considers the full range of
costs associated with the purchase
and use of a product or service over its
complete life cycle.

32. 3232
1. Acquisition costs: selling price and transportation
costs & administrative costs of evaluating suppliers,
expediting orders, and correcting errors in shipments
or delivery.
2. Possession costs: include financing, storage,
nspection, taxes, insurance, and other internal handling
costs.
3. Usage costs: are those associated with ongoing use
of the purchased product such as installation, employee
training, user labor, and field repair, as well as
product replacement and disposal costs.
TCO

33. Value-based Selling ToolsValue-based Selling Tools
Astute business marketers can pursueAstute business marketers can pursue
value-based strategies that providevalue-based strategies that provide
customers with a lower cost-in-usecustomers with a lower cost-in-use
solution.solution.
Value-based strategies seek to move theValue-based strategies seek to move the
selling proposition from one that centersselling proposition from one that centers
on current prices and individualon current prices and individual
transactions to a longer-term relationshiptransactions to a longer-term relationship
built on value and lower total cost-in-use.built on value and lower total cost-in-use.
3333

34. Segmenting the BuySegmenting the Buy
Various categories of purchases areVarious categories of purchases are
segmented on the basis of procurementsegmented on the basis of procurement
complexity and the nature of the effect oncomplexity and the nature of the effect on
corporate performancecorporate performance
Use a segmentation approach to isolateUse a segmentation approach to isolate
those purchase categories that have thethose purchase categories that have the
greatest effect on corporate revenuesgreatest effect on corporate revenues
3434

35. E-ProcurementE-Procurement
Purchasing managers use the
Internet to find new suppliers,
communicate with current
suppliers, or place an order.
E-procurement cut purchasing
cycle time in half, reduced
material costs by 14 percent
and purchasing administrative
costs by 60 percent, and
enhance the ability of
procurement units to identify
new suppliers on a global scale.
3535

36. Reverse AuctionsReverse Auctions
Involves one buyer who invites bids fromInvolves one buyer who invites bids from
several prequalified suppliers who face off inseveral prequalified suppliers who face off in
a dynamic, real-time, competitive biddinga dynamic, real-time, competitive bidding
process.process.
Reverse auctions are best suited forReverse auctions are best suited for
commodity-type items such as purchasingcommodity-type items such as purchasing
materials, diesel fuel, metal parts, chemicals,materials, diesel fuel, metal parts, chemicals,
and many raw materialsand many raw materials
3636

37. A Strategic Approach toA Strategic Approach to
Reverse AuctionsReverse Auctions
““Preempt the auction: convince the buyerPreempt the auction: convince the buyer
not to go forward with the auction becausenot to go forward with the auction because
you have a unique value proposition andyou have a unique value proposition and
are not inclined to participate.are not inclined to participate.
Manage the process: influence bidManage the process: influence bid
specifications and vendor qualificationspecifications and vendor qualification
criteria.criteria.
Walk away: simply refuse to participateWalk away: simply refuse to participate 3737

38. Centralized vs. Decentralized PurchasingCentralized vs. Decentralized Purchasing
Purchasing is moving away from a transaction-
based support role to a more strategic,
executive level role
One result of this is centralized purchasing
Centralized purchasing operates differently
than decentralized purchasing

39. Decentralized PurchasingDecentralized Purchasing
Decentralized purchasing allows localDecentralized purchasing allows local
branches to purchase what they need.branches to purchase what they need.
This results in local control, and for manyThis results in local control, and for many
kinds of services this makes sense.kinds of services this makes sense.

40. Marketing Strategy ResponseMarketing Strategy Response
The organization of the marketer’s selling strategyThe organization of the marketer’s selling strategy
should parallel the organization of the purchasingshould parallel the organization of the purchasing
function of key accounts.function of key accounts.
To avoid disjointed selling activities and internalTo avoid disjointed selling activities and internal
conflict in the sales organization, and to serve theconflict in the sales organization, and to serve the
special needs of important customers, manyspecial needs of important customers, many
business marketers have developed key accountbusiness marketers have developed key account
management programs.management programs.
Develop strategic relationships with a limitedDevelop strategic relationships with a limited
number of customers in order to achieve long-term,number of customers in order to achieve long-term,
sustained, significant, and measurable businesssustained, significant, and measurable business
value for both the customer and the providervalue for both the customer and the provider

41. Industrial Sales: How to Assess Group ForcesIndustrial Sales: How to Assess Group Forces
There are three questions that need to be addressed:There are three questions that need to be addressed:
1.1. Who takes part in the buying process?Who takes part in the buying process?
2.2. What is each member’s relative influence inWhat is each member’s relative influence in
decision?decision?
3.3. What criteria is important to each member inWhat criteria is important to each member in
evaluating the supplier?evaluating the supplier?
Answering these questions puts the salesperson in aAnswering these questions puts the salesperson in a
better position to become the chosen supplier.better position to become the chosen supplier.

42. Roles in the Buying CenterRoles in the Buying Center
InitiatorInitiator InfluencersInfluencers GatekeepersGatekeepers
DeciderDecider PurchaserPurchaser UsersUsers
8

43. Buying Center RolesBuying Center Roles
Initiator Initially perceives a problem and initiates the buying
process to solve it.
Influencer
Affects the purchasing decision by providing technical
information or other relevant (internal or external)
information.
Gatekeeper
Controls the information to be reviewed by members of the
buying group. (For example, buyer may screen advertising
material and even salespeople.)
Decider
Actually makes the buying decision, whether or not they
have formal authority to do so. Could be the owner, an
engineer or even the buyer.
Buyer
Has formal authority to select and purchase products or
services and the responsibility to implement and follow all
procurement procedures.
User Actually use the product in question. Can be
inconsequential or major players in the process.

44. Buying Center MembersBuying Center Members
Members of the buying center assume different
roles throughout the procurement process.
Clues to help
identify powerful
buying center
members:
1. Isolate the personal stakeholders
2. Follow the information flow
3. Identify the experts
4. Trace the connections to the top
5. Understand purchasing’s role

45. Isolating the Buying SituationIsolating the Buying Situation
Since buying is a process and not an event, one
needs to understand who affects the potential
sale and how they affect it.
One method is to isolate the sale. That means to
define the buying situation and to understand
what stage it is in. Effective salespeople create
a need, whereas less effective salespeople
become involved later in the buying process.

46. Strategy to Isolate the SaleStrategy to Isolate the Sale
Depending upon the product, selling companiesDepending upon the product, selling companies
that have new-buy products must:that have new-buy products must:
– Create a needCreate a need
– Get involved in the early stages of the buying processGet involved in the early stages of the buying process

47. Strategy to Isolate the SaleStrategy to Isolate the Sale
For more established type products (MRO), theFor more established type products (MRO), the
strategy should be to:strategy should be to:
– Get a footholdGet a foothold
– Start smallStart small
– Learn the companyLearn the company
– Offer better dealsOffer better deals
– Be ready to offer more as buying/selling opportunitiesBe ready to offer more as buying/selling opportunities
occuroccur

48. Clues for Identifying
Powerful Buying Center Members
1. Isolate personal stakeholders. Who has the
most to gain and/or lose?
2. Follow the information flow. Influencers are
usually the ones who actually facilitate the
exchange.
3. Identify the experts. Experts ask the most
questions, exhibit the most knowledge, and are
often the most influential.

49. Clues for IdentifyingClues for Identifying
Powerful Buying Center MembersPowerful Buying Center Members
4. Trace the communication to the top. Who are4. Trace the communication to the top. Who are
the decision makers?the decision makers?
5. Make sure you understand purchasing’s role.5. Make sure you understand purchasing’s role.
Often purchasers are not decision makers, butOften purchasers are not decision makers, but
they may be the bargainers. In repeat buyingthey may be the bargainers. In repeat buying
situations, they are usually dominant playerssituations, they are usually dominant players
because of their specialization.because of their specialization.

50. Who Makes the Decision?Who Makes the Decision?
Individuals make the decision, not organizations!Individuals make the decision, not organizations!
Each member has a unique personality,Each member has a unique personality,
experience and motive, and are subject to riskexperience and motive, and are subject to risk
and rewards.and rewards.
Professional marketers understand this andProfessional marketers understand this and
make sure that they learn to recognize andmake sure that they learn to recognize and
match to it.match to it.

51. Evaluative CriteriaEvaluative Criteria
Industrial product users value:Industrial product users value:
1.1. Prompt deliveryPrompt delivery
2.2. Efficient and effective serviceEfficient and effective service
Engineering values:Engineering values:
1.1. Product qualityProduct quality
2.2. StandardizationStandardization
3.3. TestingTesting
Purchasing values:Purchasing values:
1.1. Price advantage and economyPrice advantage and economy
2.2. Shipping and forwardingShipping and forwarding

52. Evaluative DifferencesEvaluative Differences
Education: Engineers have a differentEducation: Engineers have a different
educational background than purchasingeducational background than purchasing
agents.agents.
Also, various occupations have differentAlso, various occupations have different
dispositions. For example:dispositions. For example:
1.1. Engineers are usually cold, analytical andEngineers are usually cold, analytical and
suspecting.suspecting.
2.2. Salespeople are usually warm, open andSalespeople are usually warm, open and
optimistic.optimistic.

53. Marketing ResponseMarketing Response
By understanding the buying process and theBy understanding the buying process and the
various roles that link the buying groupvarious roles that link the buying group
together, the marketer is in a better position totogether, the marketer is in a better position to
match with them by working with the rightmatch with them by working with the right
people and the appropriate sales process.people and the appropriate sales process.

54. Selective Processes inSelective Processes in
Information ProcessingInformation Processing
• Selective exposure.Selective exposure.
• Selective attention.Selective attention.
• Selective perception.Selective perception.
• Selective retention.Selective retention.

55. Selective ExposureSelective Exposure
Individuals accept communicationIndividuals accept communication
messages consistent with theirmessages consistent with their
attitudes and beliefs.attitudes and beliefs.
This is why buyers will choose toThis is why buyers will choose to
talk to some salespeople and not totalk to some salespeople and not to
others.others.

56. Selective AttentionSelective Attention
People filter out stimuli only to allowPeople filter out stimuli only to allow
certain ones to cognition. For example,certain ones to cognition. For example,
buyers will notice certain ads that canbuyers will notice certain ads that can
solve a perceived need.solve a perceived need.

57. Selective PerceptionSelective Perception
People interpret stimuli in terms of theirPeople interpret stimuli in terms of their
attitudes and beliefs.attitudes and beliefs.
This explains why buyers may modify orThis explains why buyers may modify or
change their disposition to a salesperson inchange their disposition to a salesperson in
order to make it more consistent with theirorder to make it more consistent with their
predisposition towards the company.predisposition towards the company.
They like the company so they may like theThey like the company so they may like the
salesperson.salesperson.

58. Selective RetentionSelective Retention
People recall information that pertains toPeople recall information that pertains to
their own needs and dispositions.their own needs and dispositions.
For example, a buyer may rememberFor example, a buyer may remember
information about a certain brand becauseinformation about a certain brand because
it elicits a reaction that is consistent withit elicits a reaction that is consistent with
his/her criteria.his/her criteria.

59. Selective ProcessSelective Process
Each of those selective exposures elicits aEach of those selective exposures elicits a
reaction that influences the buyers’ actions.reaction that influences the buyers’ actions.
Since procurement activities often span a greatSince procurement activities often span a great
deal of time, it is imperative for marketers todeal of time, it is imperative for marketers to
carefully design and target their marketingcarefully design and target their marketing
communications.communications.
Salespeople who understand and adjust to buyerSalespeople who understand and adjust to buyer
psychological needs are usually more successfulpsychological needs are usually more successful
than those who are not cognizant or considerate ofthan those who are not cognizant or considerate of
those needs.those needs.

60. Risk-ReductionRisk-Reduction
Most people are adverse to risk,Most people are adverse to risk,
especially buyers. Great risk canespecially buyers. Great risk can
mean great loss and buyers can getmean great loss and buyers can get
fired for that.fired for that.
There are two components toThere are two components to
perceived risk. They are…perceived risk. They are…

61. Perceived Risk ComponentsPerceived Risk Components
1. Uncertainty about decision
outcomes.
2. Magnitude of consequences
associated with making a
wrong selection.

62. Confronting RiskConfronting Risk
The larger the purchase, the more influential the
buying center becomes and can often include
higher ranking members.
There is an extensive outside search to see
what others are doing in similar situations.
Sellers who have a proven track record are
favored.