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Journal of Education and Practice                                                             www.iiste.org
ISSN 2222-1735 (Paper) ISSN 2222-288X (Online)
Vol 2, No 1, 2011


 Decentralized supervision of schools in Kigali City: Issues and
                          challenges
                                      IMANIRIHO Dan
                    School of Education, Université Catholique de Louvain
                               1348 Louvain-la-Neuve/Belgique
                                     Tel : +32483004140
                                 E-mail: irihodan@yahoo.fr
Abstract
Decentralization in education is one of current issues worldwide. It has received a great recognition in the
sense that it is expected to contribute to the realization of educational objectives. Hence, it is included
among the requirements of Breton Wood institutions for developing countries which are seeking financial
aid. Therefore, the main purpose of this study was to find out the issues and challenges of the decentralized
supervision in schools of Kigali City, through a systematic analysis of perceptions from teachers, head
teachers and educational officers. Findings show a significant positive relationship between the years of
experience of respondents and their perception on implementation of decentralization in supervision of
schools. However, the difference between perceptions of teachers, head teachers and educational officers
towards implementation of decentralization in educational supervision was proved to be insignificant. They
also indicate different challenges and constraints encountered while implementing decentralization in
schools.
Key Words: Education, Supervision, Decentralization, delegation, deconcentration, devolution,
           Educational supervision.


1. Introduction
Since early ages, practices of education have known evolutions and changes. From offering of education
following an apprenticeship and learning-by-doing model controlled by individual «masters», it has
evolved to an educational model controlled by the community. Meanwhile, the instruction program was
based on each community needs and limited only on basic skills (poetry, literacy, household skills.) and
precious trades (military and war skills, iron smith and foundry) (Erny, 2005, Njoroge et al, 2003 ). The
nineteenth and twentieth century have brought great changes in education due to the impact of urbanization
and science reasoning (Welsh et al, 1999). Consequently the educational models have been more expanded
and centralized than before. Nevertheless by the 1970s, practices and concepts of education have
undergone, once again, substantial changes. Reasons for these changes are numerous. Welsh et al (1999)
have given some of them such as:
i) The political-economic debates of the 1970s resulted in the disintegration of the western “Keynesian
    consensus” that had favored strong centralized government;
ii) Economical and financial globalization have further weakened central government with the
    supranational organizations which have reduced national sovereignty; and a shift towards market-
    based decision making which has strengthened local groups;
iii) From 1970s, enrollment in education around the world has doubled and tripled. The increases in
     teachers and students strained the capacity of centralized bureaucracy to maintain quality;

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Journal of Education and Practice                                                            www.iiste.org
ISSN 2222-1735 (Paper) ISSN 2222-288X (Online)
Vol 2, No 1, 2011

iv) The emergence of new information and communication technology has made it possible to achieve high
     level of control over systems with decentralized management.
Within this context, the 21st century has seen the centralized system being proven to be inappropriate, and
replaced by the decentralized system that is “arguably one of the important phenomena to come on to the
educational objectives” (Welsh et al, 1999). The World Bank (2006) holds that this movement towards the
emergent system is observed in different ways. In some cases, it is either a deconcentration system which is
a redistribution of decision making authority and financial management responsibility among different
levels of central government, or delegation system defined as transfer of responsibility for decision making
and administration of public functions to semi-autonomous organizations not wholly controlled by the
central government but ultimately accountable to it. In many cases, it is in form of devolution system which
is a transfer of authority and responsibility for decision making from a higher to a lower level quasi
autonomous with corporate status and with powers to sue and be sued.
From 26 may 2000, the Rwandan government followed this new movement in adopting a decentralization
policy and in implementing strategies for national decentralization policy (Ndahimana et al, 2002). The
statement of Rwandan ministry of local government, community development and social affair
(MINALOC: 2001) holds that this change emanates from the fundamental laws of the country as well as in
the political and administrative pre-dispositions the government had already taken as follows: acceptance of
the principle of power sharing as expressed in the “Arusha Peace Agreement" between the Government of
Rwanda and the Rwandan Patriotic Front which was signed in August 1993, seven months before the
Rwandan genocide; constitutional provision that all power emanates from the people and that the national
sovereignty belongs to Rwandan people (Université National du Rwanda: 1995:23); presidential
consultations held from May 1998 to March 1999, which resolved that decentralization and
democratization would be one of the policies to reconcile Rwandan people after the genocide of 1994 and
to help in poverty reduction process. Meanwhile, the World Bank (2003) holds that the overall objective of
implementation of this new policy of Rwandan schools was the improvement of enrollment, retention, and
achievement indicators, as well as the improvement of education quality and equity. Implicit in the
implementation of decentralized planning in education was the assumption that the devolution of
responsibility and duties to community members will naturally engender improvements in the above cited
education indicators.
However, empirical researches show that Rwanda is not an exception when it comes to implementation of
decentralization especially in terms of constraints and challenges. The reports of MINALOC (2004), the
Association of Netherlands Municipalities (VNG:2003) and Ndahimana et al, (2002), revealed that
different constraints limit the achievement of decentralization implementation in Rwanda. Although
studies were conducted on the decentralization implementation process in other Rwanda administration
sectors, the analysis of Rwandan education supervision dimension has not yet occurred. Therefore, there is
a need for the community members to be enlightened on what is being done and what needs to be done in
decentralization of educational supervision especially at the level of school, sector (commonly known as
«Umurenge») and district (commonly known as «Akarere»).
2. Objectives of the study
The main objective of this study was to determine − through a systematic analysis of perceptions from
teachers, headmasters and educational officers − the extent to which decentralization of supervision of
schools is implemented in Kigali City. More specifically, the objective includes the following:
1.   Determine whether teachers, head teachers and educational supervisors are trained in dealing with the


                                                     2
Journal of Education and Practice                                                             www.iiste.org
ISSN 2222-1735 (Paper) ISSN 2222-288X (Online)
Vol 2, No 1, 2011

     recent system of supervision in schools.
2.   Find out whether educational stakeholders implement the decentralization system according to their
     role in a decentralized educational supervision encompasses in the following twelve dimensions:
     Communication, instructional program, motivating and organizing, curriculum, problem solving and
     decision making, personnel development, research and program evaluation, community relations, staff
     development, planning changes, service to teachers, observation and conferences.
3.   Determine if there is a significant difference in the perception of teachers, head teachers and
     educational supervisors in the implementation of decentralization.
4.   Examine the relationship between perceptions on implementation of decentralization and the
     demographic characteristics such as type of school, location of school, experience, level of education
     attained, and in-service training attended.
5.   Find out whether the contribution of government, districts and parents, is adequate.
6.   Find out whether teachers, head teachers and educational supervisors are satisfied with the innovation
     in supervision of education from centralized to decentralized system.
7.   Identify the challenges and constraints in the implementation of decentralization in schools of Kigali
     City.
3. Hypothesizes
Due to lack of diversity in trainings and other channels or sources of information, there is no significant
difference in the perception of teachers, head teachers and educational supervision officers on the
implementation of decentralization in supervision of schools.
There is no significant relationship between the perception of implementation of decentralization in schools
and the demographic characteristics such as years of experience, educational level attained, type of school,
location, and in-service training attended.
4. Decentralization in educational supervision
4.1 Decentralization process and dimensions of educational supervision
Considering «decentralization» as the systematic efforts to delegate all authority to the lowest level except
that which can only be exercised at the central level and considering «decentralization in educational
supervision» as the implication of teachers, head teachers, schools’ stakeholders, educational supervisors
and elected local authorities in educational supervisory activities which include “general supervision” that
resumes activities which take place principally outside the classroom and “instructional supervision”
concerned with student learning process in classroom; this study was mainly based on the concept of
dimension of supervisory practices identified by Okumbe (1998), the perspective of decentralization in
educational supervision process developed by Pajak (1992) and the perspective of three complementary
ways developed by De Grauwe (2004).
In his study, Pajak (1992) identified twelve dimensions of supervisory practices that can serve as model and
reference in implementing changes from centralized to decentralized system in supervision of schools, such
as community relations (establish and maintain an open and productive relations between the school and its
community), staff development (develop and facilitate meaningful opportunities for professional growth),
planning and change (initiate and implement collaborative strategies for continuous improvement in
schools), communication (ensure an open and clear channel of information among individuals and groups
through the organization), curriculum (involvement of all actors in the process of curriculum development


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Journal of Education and Practice                                                             www.iiste.org
ISSN 2222-1735 (Paper) ISSN 2222-288X (Online)
Vol 2, No 1, 2011

and implementation), instructional program (support and coordinate teachers’ efforts and initiatives to
improve the instructional program), service to teachers (provide necessary materials, resources and
assistance to support teaching and learning process), observation and conferences (involve teachers in peer-
supervision/coaching and always provide feedback after classroom observation), problem solving and
decision making (use a variety of strategies to involve teachers, parents and students in problems analysis
and decision making process), research and program evaluation (encourage experimentation from micro
level and assess their outcomes), motivating and organizing (help all education actors to develop a shared
vision and achieve collective aims), personnel development (recognize stakeholders’ achievements and
develop rules and norms that reflect upon actors personal and professional beliefs, abilities and action).
Likewise, Okumbe (1998) summarized the role of supervisors in three dimensions: (a) administrative
dimension, (b) curricular dimension, (c) instructional dimension. In the same perspective, De Grauwe
(2004) showed that the introduction and implementation of these different roles of supervisors
encompassed in different dimensions can be shared in what he called three complementary ways: (a) the
involvement of elected local authorities in taking charge of education in their area, (b) the strengthening of
the role of regional and district officers in education and (c) the increase of schools’ autonomy in
management of education.
The perspective of dimensions of supervisory practices and three complementary ways are fitted as a
framework for this study as long as they refer to the way implementation of decentralization in supervision
of schools should be carried out. They are considered as a cognitive reference and model which determine
what should be done in implementing decentralization of educational supervision and in adjusting
interventions in this domain. In this research, administrative dimensions such as communication,
community relation, problem solving and decision making were used as guidelines in order to assess how
schools are implementing collaborative strategies for continuous improvement and how productive
relations are implemented and maintained between all school’s stakeholders. Curricular dimensions such as
curriculum and staff development were used in order to assess the participation of local people (teachers,
headmasters and education supervisors) in development and implementation of curriculum or schools
programs. Instructional dimensions such as observation and conference, service to teachers, program
evaluation and instructional program were used in order to assess the implication of teachers, headmasters
and educational supervisors in the development and implementation of a variety of strategies that improve
the instructional activities in schools. Indeed, the role of all these dimensions was to help in answering the
questions “What is being done and what needs to be done” in implementation of a decentralized
educational supervision process in Kigali City.
4.2 Historical background of decentralization process in Rwandan education system
The government of Rwanda decided to join the worldwide movement from centralized to decentralized
system through three phases (MINALOC, 2004: 2-3) as follows:
• From May 2000 to December 2001, the decision making authority and financial management
  responsibility have been redistributed among different levels of central government especially in
  different ministry unities and directions.
• From January 2002 to December 2004, responsibility for decision making was transferred to province
  and district which were not wholly controlled by the central government but accountable to it.
• From January 2006, local government (districts) created by law as legal entities with powers to sue and
  be sued received the whole responsibility for decision making and financial management. Since then,



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Journal of Education and Practice                                                             www.iiste.org
ISSN 2222-1735 (Paper) ISSN 2222-288X (Online)
Vol 2, No 1, 2011

  they assumed responsibility over secondary, primary and nursery schools. Below the district level, other
  entities were created such as «Sector» (Umurenge), «Cell» (Akagari) and «Village» (Umudugudu).
However, the decentralization process in Rwanda education system was strengthened with the coming into
force of different legislations such as: the organic law nº 20/2003 of 03 august 2003, the organic law
nº29/2003 of 30 august 2003, prime minister order nº05/2003 of 15 mars 2003 and presidential order
nº48/01 of 10/8/2009. According to these documents, communities do not directly participate in policy
formulation. However, their wishes are sought and considered by the national policy formulators through
the local administration channels and they are supposed to be actively involved in implementation of
education policy through province educational council, district education council, school general
assemblies and school parents-teachers associations (PTAs). Elected authorities are also involved in
supervision of schools as follows: at province, district and sector level they are in charge of supervision of
special education, secondary, primary and nursery schools while the cell level is in charge of supervision of
only nursery schools (Republic of Rwanda, 2009). Parents must also participate in developing education
and in controlling the financial and administrative management of schools in which, their children are
studying (Republic of Rwanda, 2003a).
5. Research Methods
5.1 Participants
Respondents of the questionnaire were comprised of 295 teachers, 37 head teacher and 26 educational
supervisors at district and sector levels selected from a population of 1500 teachers of secondary and
primary schools, 163 head teachers of private and public primary and secondary schools and 38 educational
supervisors of sectors and districts.
These head teachers were targeted because they are the ones who facilitate decision making process in
schools. They have the responsibility of implementation and control of school activities. In consultation
with schools’ parents committees, they make final decisions concerning the running of schools. They
greatly affect the level of success or failure of objectives and goals of schools. Thus, their contribution in
this study was paramount because they are the key element in the implementation of decentralization in
schools.
The reason for choosing educational officers (at district and sector level), and teachers is based on the fact
that they are directly involved in the implementation of decentralization system in educational supervision.
Teachers were targeted especially because they form an important source of data for the implementation of
decentralization in schools. In fact, with the increase of school’s autonomy, teachers play an important role
in supervision of education (MINEDUC, 2006). Therefore, they can provide very useful information about
implementation of decentralization system in their schools.
5.2 Instruments and measurement
Data-gathering tools used in this study were, a questionnaire based on Likert five-point slating scale and
interview schedule. Their development process was based on objectives of this study combined with the
work of Okumbe (1998), De Grauwe(2004) and Pajak(1992) who carried out studies on decentralization in
supervision of education.
The validity of these instruments was determined through face validity methods. The researcher solicited
opinions from five lecturers of the School of Education at University of Eastern Africa-Baraton/Kenya and
one lecturer at Adventist University of Central Africa/Rwanda (the inclusive criterion for these lecturers
was at least a Ph.D degree and being involved in different researches). They judged the appropriateness of
items on research instrument and they assessed the suitability and relevance of research instruments to

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Journal of Education and Practice                                                             www.iiste.org
ISSN 2222-1735 (Paper) ISSN 2222-288X (Online)
Vol 2, No 1, 2011

objectives of the study. According to their judgments and assessments, amendments were carried out and
two of them were asked to reexamine the research instrument in order to establish its validity.
The instruments reliability was determined by administering the instruments to a small selected sample of
respondents. After gathering information from this selected sample, instrument reliability was determined
using internal consistency method. In this study, a minimum of 0.7 and above was taken as reliability for
the instrument to be acceptable. The instrument yielded a Cronbach alpha coefficient of 0.7793.
6. Analysis and interpretation of data
Collected data from written questionnaire was analyzed using the Statistical Package for Social Sciences
(SPSS). Results were interpreted through the following statistical procedures: standard deviation (used in
order to measure the degree of dispersion − homogeneity or heterogeneity − of given responses); arithmetic
Mean ( used in order to measure the central tendencies); analysis of variance ( used in order to determine if
there is a significant difference in the perception of teachers, headmasters and educational officers in the
implementation of decentralization); Pearson product-moment correlation (used to examine the relationship
between the perception of implementation of decentralization and the demographic characteristics such as
type of school, location, years of experience, education attained, and training attended).
All selected head teachers (37) and educational supervisors at sector and district level (26) were involved in
interview which responses were analyzed using the content-analysis method. The researcher recorded only
responses at least given by 50% of the respondents. After recording the answers, the researcher compared
results from interview with results from questionnaire and they matched up except for very rarely
occasions.
6.1. Results
Data collected on in-service trainings attended by respondents revealed that 97 % of teachers, 91.9% of
head teachers and 92.3% of educational supervisors have never received any in-service training on
principals and values of decentralization in educational supervision. Therefore 12.2% of teachers, 100% of
head teachers and 30.8% of educational supervisors attended at least one session of in-service training on
educational management. On this matter, results from interview show that all head teachers and district
educational supervisors (those from sector level were excluded) attended at least one in service training on
school management through a ministry of education’s program known as «VVOB». Curiously, though
most of documents used in this program implicitly contain information on some elements of a decentralized
system, respondents seem not to be able to point out any link between the acquired knowledge and
decentralization aspects in supervision of their schools.
Respondents hold that they gather information on decentralization process from meetings with local elected
authorities especially during the community works known as «Umuganda» which take place − every last
Saturday of each month − in each village (37.3% of teachers, 54.1% of head teachers and 57.7% of
educational supervisors), from media (36.9% of teachers, 21.6% of head teachers and 26.9% of educational
supervisors), from colleagues and friends (23.4% of teachers, 16.2% of head teachers and 7.7% of
educational supervisors) but rarely from trainings (3.0% of teachers, 8.1% of head teachers and 7.7% of
educational supervisors) and very rarely from official documents(1.4% of teachers, 8.1% of head teachers).
Meanwhile, all educational supervisors at district and sector levels did not mention any gathering of
information from official documents. During interview process, they pointed out that they hardly get access
to official documents related to education.
Data on implementation of decentralization in schools of Kigali City revealed that the decentralized
supervision in schools is implemented on average level with a mean score (MS) of 2.9007 and a standard

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Journal of Education and Practice                                                              www.iiste.org
ISSN 2222-1735 (Paper) ISSN 2222-288X (Online)
Vol 2, No 1, 2011

deviation (SD) of 0.32316. Meanwhile, the overall perception of respondents indicates that even though
there is progress in implementation of decentralization in many dimensions of supervisory practices; there
is stagnation in some others. For example in administrative activities (MS=3.05; SD=0.56), community
relations dimensions scored the highest mean score (MS=3.63; SD=1.15) followed by the problem solving
and decision making dimensions (MS=3.53; SD=1.01), communication dimension (MS=3.21; SD=1.15)
personnel development (MS=3.13; SD=1.31) motivating and organizing dimensions (MS=2.77; SD=1.05).
Indeed, all these dimensions were ranked by respondents on the average level of implementation while the
dimension of planning and changes was ranked by respondents on a low level of implementation
(MS=2.29; SD=1.04). In curricular activities (MS=3.16; SD=0.90), the staff development dimension
scored the highest mean score (MS=3.31; SD=1.13) followed by curriculum dimension (MS=3.01,
SD=1.21). Those two dimensions of curricular activities were ranked by respondents on average level of
implementation. In instructional activities (MS=2.33; SD=0.58), the dimension of service to teachers was
ranked on average level of implementation (MS=2.63; SD=1.22). The rest of dimensions of instructional
activities were ranked on a low level of implementation as follows: instructional program (MS=2.45;
SD=1.02), observation and conferences (MS=2.18; SD=1.26), research and evaluation (MS=2.13; SD=
0.38).
Results show that, despite the VVOB trainings attended only by head teacher and district education
officers, there is no significant difference among group respondents in the perception of implementation of
decentralization in supervision of schools (F= 1.039; P= 0.355). Meanwhile, perception on the
implementation of decentralization in Rwandan schools was proved to be significantly related to years of
experience of teachers, head teachers and educational supervisors (r = 0.136). However, results revealed
that correlation between the rest of variables (type of school, location, level of education attained, and in-
service training attended) and the implementation of decentralization in supervision of schools was not
significant.
It was also revealed that parents (MS=4.04; SD=0.98) and national government (MS=3.26; SD=1.55)
significantly contribute in funding schools. The overall perception of respondents however indicates that
participation of districts in funding schools is not significant (MS=2.97; SD=1.37) and all respondents
stated that considering the material and financial requirements for effective implementation of
decentralization, the contribution is not sufficient (MS=2.78, SD=1.11). Nevertheless, they mentioned a
great improvement in decision making process since the beginning of implementation of decentralization in
their schools (MS= 3.45 and SD=0.65 for teachers; MS=3.32 and SD=0.57 for head teachers; MS=4.00 and
SD=0.00 for educational supervisors).
Challenges and constraints advanced by all three groups of respondents are ineffective management, lack of
knowledge related to principles and values of decentralization, incapacity and incompetence of some
stakeholders, limited resources and funding, unclear demarcation of responsibilities, weak coordination of
institutions and untrained staff. However, educational supervisors mentioned poor monitoring and
evaluation process, work overload and powerlessness as challenges that they encounter while majority of
teachers and headmasters did not consider these as big challenges in their schools. On the other hand,
teachers and headmasters pointed out the abuse of power of some stakeholders as a challenge which is not
considered as such by educational supervisors.
6.2 Discussion of results
From the analysis of data and findings, it was observed that there is a lack of in-service training relevant to
implementation of decentralization in supervision of schools in Kigali City which is still on average level.
Teachers, head teachers and educational supervisors do not significantly differ in their perception on

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Journal of Education and Practice                                                             www.iiste.org
ISSN 2222-1735 (Paper) ISSN 2222-288X (Online)
Vol 2, No 1, 2011

implementation of decentralization in supervision of schools. This phenomenon may be related to the
isomorphism of sources of information (umuganda activities, media, colleagues and friends) which are not
efficient when it comes to decentralized educational supervision issues that require a minimum level of
specialization from those who explain them. When the responsibility for explanation of such issues to
population is carried out by only the elected local authorities whom many of them have not attended at least
the secondary school education level and have not attended any other special training related to the matter,
it necessary leads to unpredicted consequences.
Teachers, head teachers and educational supervisors are relatively satisfied with the financial contribution
of the government of Rwanda and parents of students. However, resources for implementation of a
decentralized educational supervision at school, sector and district levels are surprisingly considered by
respondents as insufficient. Considering the school capital grant transferred to each public primary school
by the government of Rwanda on the basis of number of student enrolled through the program of «free-fees
policy», this respondent’s consideration seems to be related, not to the lack of funds, but to the fact that
those who develop the performance contract «imihigo» do not dispose sufficient and accuracy experience
and skills on the effective planning process in a decentralized education system. Therefore, their
performance contracts are likely based on felt needs rather than real or documented needs identified from
hard empirical data collected from the school community. For example, in february 2012, eight head
teachers from Gakenke district were forced to resign since their performances were very far below the
indicators of success included in their contract of performance. They had defined objectives which are
beyond their financial and material capacities (Muhirwa, 2012).
In general, results show that respondents are satisfied with changes made in supervision of education from
centralized to decentralized system even though teachers, head teachers and educational supervisors stated
that they encounter different challenges and constraints which limit their action of implementing
decentralization process in supervision of schools the way it is stipulated in its cognitive referential. The
ranking and influence level of these challenges and constraints differ according to the position occupied by
respondent in the education system. Meanwhile, those who served longer in the education system tend to
have a better perception on decentralization in supervision of schools.
6.3 Conclusion
Since seminars on principles and values of a decentralized educational supervision system can help
teachers, headmasters, educational supervisors at sector and district level or parents in dealing with
problems encountered in supervision of education, the government through the Ministry of Education,
Science, Technology and Culture (MINEDUC), is encouraged to organize trainings for teachers, head
teachers and educational supervisors in areas such as interpersonal communication, classroom observation,
problem solving and decision making, decentralized supervision of education process, values and principles
of decentralization and other areas that are relevant to implementation of decentralization in education. The
MINEDUC is also encouraged to evaluate the impact of in-service trainings provided through VVOB
program since they seem not to have a significant influence on education officers and head teachers’
cognitive representation towards decentralization process in education.
Local elected authorities and local education administrators are encouraged to consult education official
documents and visit their schools more often. This is very important for the enhancement of education
standards in schools and encouragement of teachers, headmasters and parents. In the same perspective,
headmasters and the educational officers should try as much as possible to involve teachers and parents in
location of school’s needs and supervision of education whenever possible. This can reduce
misunderstanding between teachers, head teachers and educational supervisors as long as teachers, parents

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Journal of Education and Practice                                                             www.iiste.org
ISSN 2222-1735 (Paper) ISSN 2222-288X (Online)
Vol 2, No 1, 2011

and head teachers feel ownership for the decisions made in their schools. In this case, there is a need of
change in communication system and restructure the mechanism for sharing functions especially during the
development of contracts of performance «Imihigo» that should precise which aspect of supervision will be
coordinated by the district and sector and which one will be handled by schools.
In order to achieve an effective decentralization process in Rwandan education, schools and classrooms
should be the center of inquiry. Therefore, multiple indicators of schools’ success should be prepared by a
team of teachers, head teachers and educational supervisors taking into account of what works best in each
district. These indicators should be consistent with the objectives stipulated in performance contracts
(commonly known as “Imihigo”) signed by educational administrators in each district. Meanwhile,
experience should be included among the requirements in selecting educational supervisors and head
teachers since it seems to be positively related to the understanding of decentralization process in schools.
The National Council for Curriculum Development should provide opportunities for teachers and head
teachers’ participation in the development of curriculum in order to encourage ownership and facilitate the
instructional supervision based on peer coaching approach.


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Richardson, M. D.,&Kenneth, C. B.&J,. Flanigan, L (1998). School Empowerment. Pennyslvania:
            Technomic Publications
Université National du Rwanda (1995). Codes et Lois du Rwanda. Volume I, 2ème Edition
VNG. (2003): Appraisal of the Decentralization Process in Rwanda, Kigali, Septembre 2003
Welsh, T.&MacGinn, F. N. (1999): Decentralization of education: Why, when, what and how?
           Paris:UNESCO/IEEP.
World Bank, (2006). What is Decentralization? New york: World Bank Decentralization Thematic Team.
             Retrieved on 12th September 2006
        http://www.ciesin.columbia.edu/decentralization/English/General/Different_forms.html




                                                   10
Journal of Education and Practice                                                                              www.iiste.org
ISSN 2222-1735 (Paper) ISSN 2222-288X (Online)
Vol 2, No 1, 2011

Tables

 Table 1. Analysis of differences in teachers, principals and educational supervision
    officers perceptions toward the implementation of decentralization process
                                                               Descriptives

  IMPLMEAN
                                                                               95% Confidence Interval for
                                                                                         Mean
                     N             Mean   Std. Deviation Std. Error            Lower Bound Upper Bound         Minimum     Maximum
  Teachers               295       2.9119       .33305     .01939                   2.8737        2.9500           2.22        4.00
  Headmasters             37       2.8566       .31501     .05179                   2.7516        2.9617           2.35        3.65
  Supervisors             26       2.8361       .18784     .03684                   2.7603        2.9120           2.35        3.00
  Total                  358       2.9007       .32316     .01708                   2.8671        2.9342           2.22        4.00


                                                                     ANOVA

   IMPLMEAN
                                     Sum of
                                     Squares                  df               Mean Square               F                Sig.
   Between Groups                           .217                       2                  .109               1.039               .355
   Within Groups                         37.066                      355                  .104
   Total                                 37.283                      357



                                                            Multiple Comparisons

  Dependent Variable: IMPLMEAN
  LSD

                                                     Mean
  (I) Category of        (J) Category of           Difference                                             95% Confidence Interval
  Respondents            Respondents                   (I-J)           Std. Error       Sig.          Lower Bound       Upper Bound
  Teachers               Headmasters                         .0552          .05636             .328           -.0556              .1661
                         Supervisors                         .0757          .06610             .253           -.0543              .2057
  Headmasters            Teachers                          -.0552           .05636             .328           -.1661              .0556
                         Supervisors                         .0205          .08269             .804           -.1421              .1831
  Supervisors            Teachers                          -.0757           .06610             .253           -.2057              .0543
                         Headmasters                       -.0205           .08269             .804           -.1831              .1421




                                                                11
Journal of Education and Practice                                                                            www.iiste.org
       ISSN 2222-1735 (Paper) ISSN 2222-288X (Online)
       Vol 2, No 1, 2011

       Table 2: Analysis of relationship between the perceptions of implementation of
              decentralization and the demographic characteristics such as type and
              location of school, years of experience, education attained, and in-service
              training attended

                                                                  Correlations


                                                                                                                                        Trained in
                                                                                                                                      Principles and
                                                                     Professional     Location of     Trained in       Trained in        values of
                                                         Years of    Qualification school before       School         Supervision     decentralizatio
                                               IMPLSUM Experience       Level        January 2006    Management       of Education    n in education
IMPLSUM                    Pearson Correlation        1       .136*           .067           -.099          -.052            -.027             -.073
                           Sig. (2-tailed)             .      .010            .204            .060           .331             .612              .166
                           N                        358        358             358             358            358              358               358
Years of Experience        Pearson Correlation     .136*          1          -.360**          .015          -.027            -.064             -.214**
                           Sig. (2-tailed)         .010            .          .000            .774           .605             .226              .000
                           N                        358        358             358             358            358              358               358
Professional Qualification Pearson Correlation     .067      -.360**             1           -.072           .092            -.019              .183**
Level                      Sig. (2-tailed)         .204       .000                .           .175           .081             .717              .001
                           N
                                                    358        358             358             358           358              358               358

Location of school before Pearson Correlation           -.099     .015           -.072          1           -.038            .069             -.016
January 2006               Sig. (2-tailed)               .060     .774            .175           .           .472            .191              .766
                           N                              358      358             358        358             358             358               358
Trained in School          Pearson Correlation          -.052    -.027            .092      -.038               1            .650**            .191**
Management                 Sig. (2-tailed)               .331     .605            .081       .472                .           .000              .000
                           N                              358      358             358        358             358             358               358
Trained in Supervision of Pearson Correlation           -.027    -.064           -.019       .069            .650**             1              .300**
Education                  Sig. (2-tailed)               .612     .226            .717       .191            .000                .             .000
                           N                              358      358             358        358             358             358               358
Trained in Principles and Pearson Correlation           -.073    -.214**          .183**    -.016            .191**          .300**               1
values of decentralization Sig. (2-tailed)               .166     .000            .001       .766            .000            .000                  .
in education               N                              358      358             358        358             358             358               358
  *. Correlation is significant at the 0.05 level (2-tailed).
  **. Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (2-tailed).




                                                                      12
Journal of Education and Practice                                          www.iiste.org
      ISSN 2222-1735 (Paper) ISSN 2222-288X (Online)
      Vol 2, No 1, 2011




Table 3: Challenges and Constraints encountered while implementing a decentralized education
system


                                                   View of         View of           View of
                                                   Teachers      Headmasters      Educational
                                                                                   supervisors
                                                 Mean     Rank   Mean     Rank    Mean Rank
  Ineffective management                         3.1051    8     3.0270    9      3.5385         5


  Poor monitoring and                            2.9288    11    2.6486    12     3.0769         7
  evaluation process

  Lack of knowledge of some stakeholders
  on principles and values of decentralization   3.3458    4     3.4595    3      3.4231         6


  Incapacity and incompetence of some            3.4576    3     3.2162    8      3.1538         7
  stakeholders

  Limited resources and funding                  3.7898    1     3.8108    1      4.0769         2


  Unclear demarcation of responsibilities        3.3186    5     3.4054    4      3.9615         3


  Work overload for principals and education     3.1254    7     2.9189    6      4.6538         1
  supervisors

  Weak institution coordination                  3.2983    6     3.3514    5      3.0769         7


  Powerlessness of some headmasters/             2.5932    12    2.8378    11     3.0769         7
  educational supervisors

  Abuse of power of some stakeholders of         3.0644    10    3.2973    6      2.7308         12
  education

  Untrained staff                                3.5932    2     3.4595    2      3.9615         3

  Resistance to change                           3.0814    9     3.2162    7      2.8017         11


                                                  13

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[1 13]decentralized supervision of schools in kigali city issues and challenges

  • 1. Journal of Education and Practice www.iiste.org ISSN 2222-1735 (Paper) ISSN 2222-288X (Online) Vol 2, No 1, 2011 Decentralized supervision of schools in Kigali City: Issues and challenges IMANIRIHO Dan School of Education, Université Catholique de Louvain 1348 Louvain-la-Neuve/Belgique Tel : +32483004140 E-mail: irihodan@yahoo.fr Abstract Decentralization in education is one of current issues worldwide. It has received a great recognition in the sense that it is expected to contribute to the realization of educational objectives. Hence, it is included among the requirements of Breton Wood institutions for developing countries which are seeking financial aid. Therefore, the main purpose of this study was to find out the issues and challenges of the decentralized supervision in schools of Kigali City, through a systematic analysis of perceptions from teachers, head teachers and educational officers. Findings show a significant positive relationship between the years of experience of respondents and their perception on implementation of decentralization in supervision of schools. However, the difference between perceptions of teachers, head teachers and educational officers towards implementation of decentralization in educational supervision was proved to be insignificant. They also indicate different challenges and constraints encountered while implementing decentralization in schools. Key Words: Education, Supervision, Decentralization, delegation, deconcentration, devolution, Educational supervision. 1. Introduction Since early ages, practices of education have known evolutions and changes. From offering of education following an apprenticeship and learning-by-doing model controlled by individual «masters», it has evolved to an educational model controlled by the community. Meanwhile, the instruction program was based on each community needs and limited only on basic skills (poetry, literacy, household skills.) and precious trades (military and war skills, iron smith and foundry) (Erny, 2005, Njoroge et al, 2003 ). The nineteenth and twentieth century have brought great changes in education due to the impact of urbanization and science reasoning (Welsh et al, 1999). Consequently the educational models have been more expanded and centralized than before. Nevertheless by the 1970s, practices and concepts of education have undergone, once again, substantial changes. Reasons for these changes are numerous. Welsh et al (1999) have given some of them such as: i) The political-economic debates of the 1970s resulted in the disintegration of the western “Keynesian consensus” that had favored strong centralized government; ii) Economical and financial globalization have further weakened central government with the supranational organizations which have reduced national sovereignty; and a shift towards market- based decision making which has strengthened local groups; iii) From 1970s, enrollment in education around the world has doubled and tripled. The increases in teachers and students strained the capacity of centralized bureaucracy to maintain quality; 1
  • 2. Journal of Education and Practice www.iiste.org ISSN 2222-1735 (Paper) ISSN 2222-288X (Online) Vol 2, No 1, 2011 iv) The emergence of new information and communication technology has made it possible to achieve high level of control over systems with decentralized management. Within this context, the 21st century has seen the centralized system being proven to be inappropriate, and replaced by the decentralized system that is “arguably one of the important phenomena to come on to the educational objectives” (Welsh et al, 1999). The World Bank (2006) holds that this movement towards the emergent system is observed in different ways. In some cases, it is either a deconcentration system which is a redistribution of decision making authority and financial management responsibility among different levels of central government, or delegation system defined as transfer of responsibility for decision making and administration of public functions to semi-autonomous organizations not wholly controlled by the central government but ultimately accountable to it. In many cases, it is in form of devolution system which is a transfer of authority and responsibility for decision making from a higher to a lower level quasi autonomous with corporate status and with powers to sue and be sued. From 26 may 2000, the Rwandan government followed this new movement in adopting a decentralization policy and in implementing strategies for national decentralization policy (Ndahimana et al, 2002). The statement of Rwandan ministry of local government, community development and social affair (MINALOC: 2001) holds that this change emanates from the fundamental laws of the country as well as in the political and administrative pre-dispositions the government had already taken as follows: acceptance of the principle of power sharing as expressed in the “Arusha Peace Agreement" between the Government of Rwanda and the Rwandan Patriotic Front which was signed in August 1993, seven months before the Rwandan genocide; constitutional provision that all power emanates from the people and that the national sovereignty belongs to Rwandan people (Université National du Rwanda: 1995:23); presidential consultations held from May 1998 to March 1999, which resolved that decentralization and democratization would be one of the policies to reconcile Rwandan people after the genocide of 1994 and to help in poverty reduction process. Meanwhile, the World Bank (2003) holds that the overall objective of implementation of this new policy of Rwandan schools was the improvement of enrollment, retention, and achievement indicators, as well as the improvement of education quality and equity. Implicit in the implementation of decentralized planning in education was the assumption that the devolution of responsibility and duties to community members will naturally engender improvements in the above cited education indicators. However, empirical researches show that Rwanda is not an exception when it comes to implementation of decentralization especially in terms of constraints and challenges. The reports of MINALOC (2004), the Association of Netherlands Municipalities (VNG:2003) and Ndahimana et al, (2002), revealed that different constraints limit the achievement of decentralization implementation in Rwanda. Although studies were conducted on the decentralization implementation process in other Rwanda administration sectors, the analysis of Rwandan education supervision dimension has not yet occurred. Therefore, there is a need for the community members to be enlightened on what is being done and what needs to be done in decentralization of educational supervision especially at the level of school, sector (commonly known as «Umurenge») and district (commonly known as «Akarere»). 2. Objectives of the study The main objective of this study was to determine − through a systematic analysis of perceptions from teachers, headmasters and educational officers − the extent to which decentralization of supervision of schools is implemented in Kigali City. More specifically, the objective includes the following: 1. Determine whether teachers, head teachers and educational supervisors are trained in dealing with the 2
  • 3. Journal of Education and Practice www.iiste.org ISSN 2222-1735 (Paper) ISSN 2222-288X (Online) Vol 2, No 1, 2011 recent system of supervision in schools. 2. Find out whether educational stakeholders implement the decentralization system according to their role in a decentralized educational supervision encompasses in the following twelve dimensions: Communication, instructional program, motivating and organizing, curriculum, problem solving and decision making, personnel development, research and program evaluation, community relations, staff development, planning changes, service to teachers, observation and conferences. 3. Determine if there is a significant difference in the perception of teachers, head teachers and educational supervisors in the implementation of decentralization. 4. Examine the relationship between perceptions on implementation of decentralization and the demographic characteristics such as type of school, location of school, experience, level of education attained, and in-service training attended. 5. Find out whether the contribution of government, districts and parents, is adequate. 6. Find out whether teachers, head teachers and educational supervisors are satisfied with the innovation in supervision of education from centralized to decentralized system. 7. Identify the challenges and constraints in the implementation of decentralization in schools of Kigali City. 3. Hypothesizes Due to lack of diversity in trainings and other channels or sources of information, there is no significant difference in the perception of teachers, head teachers and educational supervision officers on the implementation of decentralization in supervision of schools. There is no significant relationship between the perception of implementation of decentralization in schools and the demographic characteristics such as years of experience, educational level attained, type of school, location, and in-service training attended. 4. Decentralization in educational supervision 4.1 Decentralization process and dimensions of educational supervision Considering «decentralization» as the systematic efforts to delegate all authority to the lowest level except that which can only be exercised at the central level and considering «decentralization in educational supervision» as the implication of teachers, head teachers, schools’ stakeholders, educational supervisors and elected local authorities in educational supervisory activities which include “general supervision” that resumes activities which take place principally outside the classroom and “instructional supervision” concerned with student learning process in classroom; this study was mainly based on the concept of dimension of supervisory practices identified by Okumbe (1998), the perspective of decentralization in educational supervision process developed by Pajak (1992) and the perspective of three complementary ways developed by De Grauwe (2004). In his study, Pajak (1992) identified twelve dimensions of supervisory practices that can serve as model and reference in implementing changes from centralized to decentralized system in supervision of schools, such as community relations (establish and maintain an open and productive relations between the school and its community), staff development (develop and facilitate meaningful opportunities for professional growth), planning and change (initiate and implement collaborative strategies for continuous improvement in schools), communication (ensure an open and clear channel of information among individuals and groups through the organization), curriculum (involvement of all actors in the process of curriculum development 3
  • 4. Journal of Education and Practice www.iiste.org ISSN 2222-1735 (Paper) ISSN 2222-288X (Online) Vol 2, No 1, 2011 and implementation), instructional program (support and coordinate teachers’ efforts and initiatives to improve the instructional program), service to teachers (provide necessary materials, resources and assistance to support teaching and learning process), observation and conferences (involve teachers in peer- supervision/coaching and always provide feedback after classroom observation), problem solving and decision making (use a variety of strategies to involve teachers, parents and students in problems analysis and decision making process), research and program evaluation (encourage experimentation from micro level and assess their outcomes), motivating and organizing (help all education actors to develop a shared vision and achieve collective aims), personnel development (recognize stakeholders’ achievements and develop rules and norms that reflect upon actors personal and professional beliefs, abilities and action). Likewise, Okumbe (1998) summarized the role of supervisors in three dimensions: (a) administrative dimension, (b) curricular dimension, (c) instructional dimension. In the same perspective, De Grauwe (2004) showed that the introduction and implementation of these different roles of supervisors encompassed in different dimensions can be shared in what he called three complementary ways: (a) the involvement of elected local authorities in taking charge of education in their area, (b) the strengthening of the role of regional and district officers in education and (c) the increase of schools’ autonomy in management of education. The perspective of dimensions of supervisory practices and three complementary ways are fitted as a framework for this study as long as they refer to the way implementation of decentralization in supervision of schools should be carried out. They are considered as a cognitive reference and model which determine what should be done in implementing decentralization of educational supervision and in adjusting interventions in this domain. In this research, administrative dimensions such as communication, community relation, problem solving and decision making were used as guidelines in order to assess how schools are implementing collaborative strategies for continuous improvement and how productive relations are implemented and maintained between all school’s stakeholders. Curricular dimensions such as curriculum and staff development were used in order to assess the participation of local people (teachers, headmasters and education supervisors) in development and implementation of curriculum or schools programs. Instructional dimensions such as observation and conference, service to teachers, program evaluation and instructional program were used in order to assess the implication of teachers, headmasters and educational supervisors in the development and implementation of a variety of strategies that improve the instructional activities in schools. Indeed, the role of all these dimensions was to help in answering the questions “What is being done and what needs to be done” in implementation of a decentralized educational supervision process in Kigali City. 4.2 Historical background of decentralization process in Rwandan education system The government of Rwanda decided to join the worldwide movement from centralized to decentralized system through three phases (MINALOC, 2004: 2-3) as follows: • From May 2000 to December 2001, the decision making authority and financial management responsibility have been redistributed among different levels of central government especially in different ministry unities and directions. • From January 2002 to December 2004, responsibility for decision making was transferred to province and district which were not wholly controlled by the central government but accountable to it. • From January 2006, local government (districts) created by law as legal entities with powers to sue and be sued received the whole responsibility for decision making and financial management. Since then, 4
  • 5. Journal of Education and Practice www.iiste.org ISSN 2222-1735 (Paper) ISSN 2222-288X (Online) Vol 2, No 1, 2011 they assumed responsibility over secondary, primary and nursery schools. Below the district level, other entities were created such as «Sector» (Umurenge), «Cell» (Akagari) and «Village» (Umudugudu). However, the decentralization process in Rwanda education system was strengthened with the coming into force of different legislations such as: the organic law nº 20/2003 of 03 august 2003, the organic law nº29/2003 of 30 august 2003, prime minister order nº05/2003 of 15 mars 2003 and presidential order nº48/01 of 10/8/2009. According to these documents, communities do not directly participate in policy formulation. However, their wishes are sought and considered by the national policy formulators through the local administration channels and they are supposed to be actively involved in implementation of education policy through province educational council, district education council, school general assemblies and school parents-teachers associations (PTAs). Elected authorities are also involved in supervision of schools as follows: at province, district and sector level they are in charge of supervision of special education, secondary, primary and nursery schools while the cell level is in charge of supervision of only nursery schools (Republic of Rwanda, 2009). Parents must also participate in developing education and in controlling the financial and administrative management of schools in which, their children are studying (Republic of Rwanda, 2003a). 5. Research Methods 5.1 Participants Respondents of the questionnaire were comprised of 295 teachers, 37 head teacher and 26 educational supervisors at district and sector levels selected from a population of 1500 teachers of secondary and primary schools, 163 head teachers of private and public primary and secondary schools and 38 educational supervisors of sectors and districts. These head teachers were targeted because they are the ones who facilitate decision making process in schools. They have the responsibility of implementation and control of school activities. In consultation with schools’ parents committees, they make final decisions concerning the running of schools. They greatly affect the level of success or failure of objectives and goals of schools. Thus, their contribution in this study was paramount because they are the key element in the implementation of decentralization in schools. The reason for choosing educational officers (at district and sector level), and teachers is based on the fact that they are directly involved in the implementation of decentralization system in educational supervision. Teachers were targeted especially because they form an important source of data for the implementation of decentralization in schools. In fact, with the increase of school’s autonomy, teachers play an important role in supervision of education (MINEDUC, 2006). Therefore, they can provide very useful information about implementation of decentralization system in their schools. 5.2 Instruments and measurement Data-gathering tools used in this study were, a questionnaire based on Likert five-point slating scale and interview schedule. Their development process was based on objectives of this study combined with the work of Okumbe (1998), De Grauwe(2004) and Pajak(1992) who carried out studies on decentralization in supervision of education. The validity of these instruments was determined through face validity methods. The researcher solicited opinions from five lecturers of the School of Education at University of Eastern Africa-Baraton/Kenya and one lecturer at Adventist University of Central Africa/Rwanda (the inclusive criterion for these lecturers was at least a Ph.D degree and being involved in different researches). They judged the appropriateness of items on research instrument and they assessed the suitability and relevance of research instruments to 5
  • 6. Journal of Education and Practice www.iiste.org ISSN 2222-1735 (Paper) ISSN 2222-288X (Online) Vol 2, No 1, 2011 objectives of the study. According to their judgments and assessments, amendments were carried out and two of them were asked to reexamine the research instrument in order to establish its validity. The instruments reliability was determined by administering the instruments to a small selected sample of respondents. After gathering information from this selected sample, instrument reliability was determined using internal consistency method. In this study, a minimum of 0.7 and above was taken as reliability for the instrument to be acceptable. The instrument yielded a Cronbach alpha coefficient of 0.7793. 6. Analysis and interpretation of data Collected data from written questionnaire was analyzed using the Statistical Package for Social Sciences (SPSS). Results were interpreted through the following statistical procedures: standard deviation (used in order to measure the degree of dispersion − homogeneity or heterogeneity − of given responses); arithmetic Mean ( used in order to measure the central tendencies); analysis of variance ( used in order to determine if there is a significant difference in the perception of teachers, headmasters and educational officers in the implementation of decentralization); Pearson product-moment correlation (used to examine the relationship between the perception of implementation of decentralization and the demographic characteristics such as type of school, location, years of experience, education attained, and training attended). All selected head teachers (37) and educational supervisors at sector and district level (26) were involved in interview which responses were analyzed using the content-analysis method. The researcher recorded only responses at least given by 50% of the respondents. After recording the answers, the researcher compared results from interview with results from questionnaire and they matched up except for very rarely occasions. 6.1. Results Data collected on in-service trainings attended by respondents revealed that 97 % of teachers, 91.9% of head teachers and 92.3% of educational supervisors have never received any in-service training on principals and values of decentralization in educational supervision. Therefore 12.2% of teachers, 100% of head teachers and 30.8% of educational supervisors attended at least one session of in-service training on educational management. On this matter, results from interview show that all head teachers and district educational supervisors (those from sector level were excluded) attended at least one in service training on school management through a ministry of education’s program known as «VVOB». Curiously, though most of documents used in this program implicitly contain information on some elements of a decentralized system, respondents seem not to be able to point out any link between the acquired knowledge and decentralization aspects in supervision of their schools. Respondents hold that they gather information on decentralization process from meetings with local elected authorities especially during the community works known as «Umuganda» which take place − every last Saturday of each month − in each village (37.3% of teachers, 54.1% of head teachers and 57.7% of educational supervisors), from media (36.9% of teachers, 21.6% of head teachers and 26.9% of educational supervisors), from colleagues and friends (23.4% of teachers, 16.2% of head teachers and 7.7% of educational supervisors) but rarely from trainings (3.0% of teachers, 8.1% of head teachers and 7.7% of educational supervisors) and very rarely from official documents(1.4% of teachers, 8.1% of head teachers). Meanwhile, all educational supervisors at district and sector levels did not mention any gathering of information from official documents. During interview process, they pointed out that they hardly get access to official documents related to education. Data on implementation of decentralization in schools of Kigali City revealed that the decentralized supervision in schools is implemented on average level with a mean score (MS) of 2.9007 and a standard 6
  • 7. Journal of Education and Practice www.iiste.org ISSN 2222-1735 (Paper) ISSN 2222-288X (Online) Vol 2, No 1, 2011 deviation (SD) of 0.32316. Meanwhile, the overall perception of respondents indicates that even though there is progress in implementation of decentralization in many dimensions of supervisory practices; there is stagnation in some others. For example in administrative activities (MS=3.05; SD=0.56), community relations dimensions scored the highest mean score (MS=3.63; SD=1.15) followed by the problem solving and decision making dimensions (MS=3.53; SD=1.01), communication dimension (MS=3.21; SD=1.15) personnel development (MS=3.13; SD=1.31) motivating and organizing dimensions (MS=2.77; SD=1.05). Indeed, all these dimensions were ranked by respondents on the average level of implementation while the dimension of planning and changes was ranked by respondents on a low level of implementation (MS=2.29; SD=1.04). In curricular activities (MS=3.16; SD=0.90), the staff development dimension scored the highest mean score (MS=3.31; SD=1.13) followed by curriculum dimension (MS=3.01, SD=1.21). Those two dimensions of curricular activities were ranked by respondents on average level of implementation. In instructional activities (MS=2.33; SD=0.58), the dimension of service to teachers was ranked on average level of implementation (MS=2.63; SD=1.22). The rest of dimensions of instructional activities were ranked on a low level of implementation as follows: instructional program (MS=2.45; SD=1.02), observation and conferences (MS=2.18; SD=1.26), research and evaluation (MS=2.13; SD= 0.38). Results show that, despite the VVOB trainings attended only by head teacher and district education officers, there is no significant difference among group respondents in the perception of implementation of decentralization in supervision of schools (F= 1.039; P= 0.355). Meanwhile, perception on the implementation of decentralization in Rwandan schools was proved to be significantly related to years of experience of teachers, head teachers and educational supervisors (r = 0.136). However, results revealed that correlation between the rest of variables (type of school, location, level of education attained, and in- service training attended) and the implementation of decentralization in supervision of schools was not significant. It was also revealed that parents (MS=4.04; SD=0.98) and national government (MS=3.26; SD=1.55) significantly contribute in funding schools. The overall perception of respondents however indicates that participation of districts in funding schools is not significant (MS=2.97; SD=1.37) and all respondents stated that considering the material and financial requirements for effective implementation of decentralization, the contribution is not sufficient (MS=2.78, SD=1.11). Nevertheless, they mentioned a great improvement in decision making process since the beginning of implementation of decentralization in their schools (MS= 3.45 and SD=0.65 for teachers; MS=3.32 and SD=0.57 for head teachers; MS=4.00 and SD=0.00 for educational supervisors). Challenges and constraints advanced by all three groups of respondents are ineffective management, lack of knowledge related to principles and values of decentralization, incapacity and incompetence of some stakeholders, limited resources and funding, unclear demarcation of responsibilities, weak coordination of institutions and untrained staff. However, educational supervisors mentioned poor monitoring and evaluation process, work overload and powerlessness as challenges that they encounter while majority of teachers and headmasters did not consider these as big challenges in their schools. On the other hand, teachers and headmasters pointed out the abuse of power of some stakeholders as a challenge which is not considered as such by educational supervisors. 6.2 Discussion of results From the analysis of data and findings, it was observed that there is a lack of in-service training relevant to implementation of decentralization in supervision of schools in Kigali City which is still on average level. Teachers, head teachers and educational supervisors do not significantly differ in their perception on 7
  • 8. Journal of Education and Practice www.iiste.org ISSN 2222-1735 (Paper) ISSN 2222-288X (Online) Vol 2, No 1, 2011 implementation of decentralization in supervision of schools. This phenomenon may be related to the isomorphism of sources of information (umuganda activities, media, colleagues and friends) which are not efficient when it comes to decentralized educational supervision issues that require a minimum level of specialization from those who explain them. When the responsibility for explanation of such issues to population is carried out by only the elected local authorities whom many of them have not attended at least the secondary school education level and have not attended any other special training related to the matter, it necessary leads to unpredicted consequences. Teachers, head teachers and educational supervisors are relatively satisfied with the financial contribution of the government of Rwanda and parents of students. However, resources for implementation of a decentralized educational supervision at school, sector and district levels are surprisingly considered by respondents as insufficient. Considering the school capital grant transferred to each public primary school by the government of Rwanda on the basis of number of student enrolled through the program of «free-fees policy», this respondent’s consideration seems to be related, not to the lack of funds, but to the fact that those who develop the performance contract «imihigo» do not dispose sufficient and accuracy experience and skills on the effective planning process in a decentralized education system. Therefore, their performance contracts are likely based on felt needs rather than real or documented needs identified from hard empirical data collected from the school community. For example, in february 2012, eight head teachers from Gakenke district were forced to resign since their performances were very far below the indicators of success included in their contract of performance. They had defined objectives which are beyond their financial and material capacities (Muhirwa, 2012). In general, results show that respondents are satisfied with changes made in supervision of education from centralized to decentralized system even though teachers, head teachers and educational supervisors stated that they encounter different challenges and constraints which limit their action of implementing decentralization process in supervision of schools the way it is stipulated in its cognitive referential. The ranking and influence level of these challenges and constraints differ according to the position occupied by respondent in the education system. Meanwhile, those who served longer in the education system tend to have a better perception on decentralization in supervision of schools. 6.3 Conclusion Since seminars on principles and values of a decentralized educational supervision system can help teachers, headmasters, educational supervisors at sector and district level or parents in dealing with problems encountered in supervision of education, the government through the Ministry of Education, Science, Technology and Culture (MINEDUC), is encouraged to organize trainings for teachers, head teachers and educational supervisors in areas such as interpersonal communication, classroom observation, problem solving and decision making, decentralized supervision of education process, values and principles of decentralization and other areas that are relevant to implementation of decentralization in education. The MINEDUC is also encouraged to evaluate the impact of in-service trainings provided through VVOB program since they seem not to have a significant influence on education officers and head teachers’ cognitive representation towards decentralization process in education. Local elected authorities and local education administrators are encouraged to consult education official documents and visit their schools more often. This is very important for the enhancement of education standards in schools and encouragement of teachers, headmasters and parents. In the same perspective, headmasters and the educational officers should try as much as possible to involve teachers and parents in location of school’s needs and supervision of education whenever possible. This can reduce misunderstanding between teachers, head teachers and educational supervisors as long as teachers, parents 8
  • 9. Journal of Education and Practice www.iiste.org ISSN 2222-1735 (Paper) ISSN 2222-288X (Online) Vol 2, No 1, 2011 and head teachers feel ownership for the decisions made in their schools. In this case, there is a need of change in communication system and restructure the mechanism for sharing functions especially during the development of contracts of performance «Imihigo» that should precise which aspect of supervision will be coordinated by the district and sector and which one will be handled by schools. In order to achieve an effective decentralization process in Rwandan education, schools and classrooms should be the center of inquiry. Therefore, multiple indicators of schools’ success should be prepared by a team of teachers, head teachers and educational supervisors taking into account of what works best in each district. These indicators should be consistent with the objectives stipulated in performance contracts (commonly known as “Imihigo”) signed by educational administrators in each district. Meanwhile, experience should be included among the requirements in selecting educational supervisors and head teachers since it seems to be positively related to the understanding of decentralization process in schools. The National Council for Curriculum Development should provide opportunities for teachers and head teachers’ participation in the development of curriculum in order to encourage ownership and facilitate the instructional supervision based on peer coaching approach. References Bloomer, K. (1991). Decentralizing the education system. The Commonwealth Secretariat report of the fifth meeting, Kadoma, Zimbabwe, 28 April- 3 May 1991 Charlier, J.,E. & Pierrard, J., F. (2001). Systèmes d’enseignement décentralisés : analyse des discours et des enjeux dans l’Éducation sénégalaise, burkinabé et malienne. Autrepart, n° 17, Des écoles pour le Sud, 29-48. Erny, P.(2005). L’Education au Rwanda au temps des rois. Paris : L’Harmattan Harrison, C. R., & Killion, J.P &Mitchell, J.E (1989). Site based management: the realities of implementation, Educational Leadership, Lugaz, C. (2004). Barriers to decentralization: Examples from West Africa, In IIEP Newsletter, Vol. 22, Nº4. MINALOC, (2001). National Decentralization Policy, Kigali, May 2001 MINEDUC. (2006). Program in support of the education sector strategic plan(ESSP)2006-2010: Appraisal report. Kigali: ADF/MINEDUC. Muhirwa, O. (2012). Abayobozi b’ibigo by’amashuri 8 kudahigura ibyo bahize bibakozeho. Retrieved on 21st march 2012. http://www.igihe.com/amakuru/abayobozi-b-ibigo-by-amashuri-8-kudahigura-ibyo-bahize- bibakozeho.html Ndahimana, E., & Twahirwa, D.,& Nyabutsitsi G. & Musoni, N.(2002). Rwanda Decentralization Assessment. Kigali:MINALOC/ USAID Njoroge, G, K. & Rubagiza, J. (2003). History of education. Module 5. Kigali:KIE Okumbe, J. A (1998): Educational Management, Theory and Practice. Nairobi: Nairobi University Press Pajak E. (1992). A view from the center office, Supervision in Transition. In ASCD 1992 Year book.USA: ASCD. 9
  • 10. Journal of Education and Practice www.iiste.org ISSN 2222-1735 (Paper) ISSN 2222-288X (Online) Vol 2, No 1, 2011 Republic of Rwanda(2003a). Organic law nº 20/2003 of 03 august 2003 organizing education. in Official Gazette of Republic of Rwanda, Year 42, Nº 21 of 1st November 2003, p2 Republic of Rwanda,(2003b). Organic law organizing education Nº 20/2003 of03/08/2003, in Official Gazette of Republic of Rwanda, Year 42, Nº 21 of1st November 2003 Republic of Rwanda,(2003). Primer Minister’s order Nº05/03 of 15/03/2003 on establishment, organization and functioning of the general inspectorate of education, in official gazette of republic of Rwanda Nº 12 of 15/06/2003 Republic of Rwanda (2009). Presidential order nº48/01 of 10/8/2009 establishing quality standards in education for nursery, primary and secondary schools in Rwanda. Kigali: General inspectorate of education Richardson, M. D.,&Kenneth, C. B.&J,. Flanigan, L (1998). School Empowerment. Pennyslvania: Technomic Publications Université National du Rwanda (1995). Codes et Lois du Rwanda. Volume I, 2ème Edition VNG. (2003): Appraisal of the Decentralization Process in Rwanda, Kigali, Septembre 2003 Welsh, T.&MacGinn, F. N. (1999): Decentralization of education: Why, when, what and how? Paris:UNESCO/IEEP. World Bank, (2006). What is Decentralization? New york: World Bank Decentralization Thematic Team. Retrieved on 12th September 2006 http://www.ciesin.columbia.edu/decentralization/English/General/Different_forms.html 10
  • 11. Journal of Education and Practice www.iiste.org ISSN 2222-1735 (Paper) ISSN 2222-288X (Online) Vol 2, No 1, 2011 Tables Table 1. Analysis of differences in teachers, principals and educational supervision officers perceptions toward the implementation of decentralization process Descriptives IMPLMEAN 95% Confidence Interval for Mean N Mean Std. Deviation Std. Error Lower Bound Upper Bound Minimum Maximum Teachers 295 2.9119 .33305 .01939 2.8737 2.9500 2.22 4.00 Headmasters 37 2.8566 .31501 .05179 2.7516 2.9617 2.35 3.65 Supervisors 26 2.8361 .18784 .03684 2.7603 2.9120 2.35 3.00 Total 358 2.9007 .32316 .01708 2.8671 2.9342 2.22 4.00 ANOVA IMPLMEAN Sum of Squares df Mean Square F Sig. Between Groups .217 2 .109 1.039 .355 Within Groups 37.066 355 .104 Total 37.283 357 Multiple Comparisons Dependent Variable: IMPLMEAN LSD Mean (I) Category of (J) Category of Difference 95% Confidence Interval Respondents Respondents (I-J) Std. Error Sig. Lower Bound Upper Bound Teachers Headmasters .0552 .05636 .328 -.0556 .1661 Supervisors .0757 .06610 .253 -.0543 .2057 Headmasters Teachers -.0552 .05636 .328 -.1661 .0556 Supervisors .0205 .08269 .804 -.1421 .1831 Supervisors Teachers -.0757 .06610 .253 -.2057 .0543 Headmasters -.0205 .08269 .804 -.1831 .1421 11
  • 12. Journal of Education and Practice www.iiste.org ISSN 2222-1735 (Paper) ISSN 2222-288X (Online) Vol 2, No 1, 2011 Table 2: Analysis of relationship between the perceptions of implementation of decentralization and the demographic characteristics such as type and location of school, years of experience, education attained, and in-service training attended Correlations Trained in Principles and Professional Location of Trained in Trained in values of Years of Qualification school before School Supervision decentralizatio IMPLSUM Experience Level January 2006 Management of Education n in education IMPLSUM Pearson Correlation 1 .136* .067 -.099 -.052 -.027 -.073 Sig. (2-tailed) . .010 .204 .060 .331 .612 .166 N 358 358 358 358 358 358 358 Years of Experience Pearson Correlation .136* 1 -.360** .015 -.027 -.064 -.214** Sig. (2-tailed) .010 . .000 .774 .605 .226 .000 N 358 358 358 358 358 358 358 Professional Qualification Pearson Correlation .067 -.360** 1 -.072 .092 -.019 .183** Level Sig. (2-tailed) .204 .000 . .175 .081 .717 .001 N 358 358 358 358 358 358 358 Location of school before Pearson Correlation -.099 .015 -.072 1 -.038 .069 -.016 January 2006 Sig. (2-tailed) .060 .774 .175 . .472 .191 .766 N 358 358 358 358 358 358 358 Trained in School Pearson Correlation -.052 -.027 .092 -.038 1 .650** .191** Management Sig. (2-tailed) .331 .605 .081 .472 . .000 .000 N 358 358 358 358 358 358 358 Trained in Supervision of Pearson Correlation -.027 -.064 -.019 .069 .650** 1 .300** Education Sig. (2-tailed) .612 .226 .717 .191 .000 . .000 N 358 358 358 358 358 358 358 Trained in Principles and Pearson Correlation -.073 -.214** .183** -.016 .191** .300** 1 values of decentralization Sig. (2-tailed) .166 .000 .001 .766 .000 .000 . in education N 358 358 358 358 358 358 358 *. Correlation is significant at the 0.05 level (2-tailed). **. Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (2-tailed). 12
  • 13. Journal of Education and Practice www.iiste.org ISSN 2222-1735 (Paper) ISSN 2222-288X (Online) Vol 2, No 1, 2011 Table 3: Challenges and Constraints encountered while implementing a decentralized education system View of View of View of Teachers Headmasters Educational supervisors Mean Rank Mean Rank Mean Rank Ineffective management 3.1051 8 3.0270 9 3.5385 5 Poor monitoring and 2.9288 11 2.6486 12 3.0769 7 evaluation process Lack of knowledge of some stakeholders on principles and values of decentralization 3.3458 4 3.4595 3 3.4231 6 Incapacity and incompetence of some 3.4576 3 3.2162 8 3.1538 7 stakeholders Limited resources and funding 3.7898 1 3.8108 1 4.0769 2 Unclear demarcation of responsibilities 3.3186 5 3.4054 4 3.9615 3 Work overload for principals and education 3.1254 7 2.9189 6 4.6538 1 supervisors Weak institution coordination 3.2983 6 3.3514 5 3.0769 7 Powerlessness of some headmasters/ 2.5932 12 2.8378 11 3.0769 7 educational supervisors Abuse of power of some stakeholders of 3.0644 10 3.2973 6 2.7308 12 education Untrained staff 3.5932 2 3.4595 2 3.9615 3 Resistance to change 3.0814 9 3.2162 7 2.8017 11 13