mengalami gangguan kelancaran berbicara (gagap) adalah seseorang yang memiliki gangguan kelancaran berbicara yang terjadi akibat dari perasaan kekhawatiran/kecemasan yang sangat tinggi saat hendak berbicara dengan lawan bicaranya, sehingga orang tersebut merasa kesulitan untuk mengungkapkan apa yang hendak ia bicarakan kepada lawan bicaranya, akibatnya ia berbicara dengan tersendat-sendat, mengulang-ulang ucapanya, dan mendadak berhenti untuk menyelesaikan apa yang hendak ia ucapkan.

1. ANISYAH DEWI SYAH FITRI,M.Pd
PERMASALAHAN PENYERTA STUTTERING

3. Purpose
• To discuss two recent theoretical models of
stuttering
• Covert Repair Hypothesis(Postma Kolk, 1993)
• Neuropsycholinguistic Model(Perkins, Kent,
Curlee, 1991)

4. Some Factors That May Be Involved in Stuttering
• Genetic
• Environmental
• Linguistic
• Motoric
• Psychological

5. Basic Steps in Language Formulation Figuring
out what you want to say
• Basic message
• Pragmatic intent
• Figuring out how you want to say it
• Grammatical structure
• Specific words
• Sounds in the words
• Prosody

6. Covert Repair Hypothesis (CRH)
(Postma Kolk, 1993)
• Designed to explain the production of speech
disfluencies by adults who do stutter as well as
those who do not in the context of general
language models
• Based upon current psycholinguistic models of
speech production(e.g., Dell, 1988 Levelt, 1989)

7. Theoretical Foundations of the CRH I
• Levelts blueprint for the speaker
• Describes conceptualization, formulation,
articulation, audition, and comprehension
• Explains how speakers monitor the accuracy and
appropriateness of their speech both before and
after speech is produced
• Describes processes speakers can utilize to
repair detected errors in their phonetic plan by
interrupting on going speech (e.g., Levelt, 1983)

8. Levelts Monitoring Loops
• Internal Loops
• In conceptualizer, before preverbal message is
generated
• After phonetic plan is generated by formulator
(covert speech)
• External Loop
• After speech is articulated (overt speech)

9. Theoretical foundations of the CRH II
• Dells (1988) Spreading-Activation Model of
Phonological Encoding
• Connectionist model
• Describes how phonological units are selected
(and mis-selected)
• When a node is activated at one level, activation
spreads to all connected nodes at other levels
• Node with highest degree of activation is selected

10. Basic Assumptionsof the CRH
• All speakers experience occasional errors in
their phonetic plan due to mis-selection of
phonological units
• If errors are detected, they can be repaired
repairs result in disfluencies
• Disfluencies are the by-product of speakers
attempt to repair phonetic plans errors

11. Basic Assumptionsof the CRH (cont.)
• Individuals who stutter produce more disfluencies
because they are assumed to
• have a slow phonological encoding mechanism
• attempt to begin speaking too soon or try to
speak too quickly for their impaired encoding
mechanism to make accurate selections
• The result is many phonetic plan errors and many
opportunities for disfluencies

12. What the CRH does and does not attempt to explain
• Does attempt to explain
• The production of speech disfluencies in the
framework of normal language processes believed
to be exhibited by all speakers
• Does not attempt to explain
• The developmental course of stuttering (e.g.,
repetitions prolongations, etc.)
• The development of accessory behaviors (struggle,
tension, etc.)

13. CRH Summary
• Speakers have the ability to monitor their
speech both before and after it is produced
• Speakers sometimes make errors in phonological
encoding due to the spreading-activation
mechanism
• If speakers detect these errors, they can
interrupt speech to repair them before they are
produced
• The by-product of the interruption is a
disfluency
• People who stutter produce more disfluencies
because their phonological encoding mechanism is
assumed to be impaired so there are frequent
encoding errors

14. Neuropsycholinguistic Model Perkins, Kent, Curlee (1991)
• Speech involves many concurrent language and
motoric processes
• The timing of the interactions between these
processes is crucial
• This model, like the CRH, emphasizes timing, but
now were interested in timing between language
components
• Also called the temporal dyssynchrony model

15. Assumptions of the Neuropsycholinguistic Model
• Disfluencies occur due to a disruption in timing
between various linguistic formulation and
motoric execution
• Stuttering is defined as a loss of control
which occurs when the individual is unable to
continue speaking, but does not know why

16. Loss of Control
• Some aspects of language formulation are
accessible to conscious awareness
• Others aspects (e.g., phonological encoding,
integration) are not
• Loss of control occurs when disruption takes
place in an aspect of the model that is not
accessible

17. One Unique Aspects of the Model
• Time pressure
• The pressure a speaker feels to continue speaking
when he is experiencing a disruption in
linguistic/motoric integration
• Increases the likelihood that the loss of
control feeling will occur
• Without abnormal time pressure, speech
disfluencies may occur, but stuttering will not

18. Summary of Neuropsycholinguistic Model
• Speech requires integration of several aspects of
linguistic formulation with motoric execution
• Processes can become disrupted
• If disruption is accessible to awareness, then
a disfluency will occur. If not, the speaker will
experience a loss of control
• If the loss of control is accompanied by abnormal
time pressure, stuttering will occur

19. What do these models tell us about the
diagnosis
and treatment of individual people who stutter?

20. Not Much!(yet)
However, the general language models on which
they are based can provide guidelines about
specific aspects of language that should be
examine in the diagnosis of individuals who
stutter

21. Conceptualization CONCEPTUALIZER monitoring
• Basic Message
• Does client stutter more on complex messages?
• Does client stutter more on utterances with
greater propositionality or meaning?
• Pragmatic Intent
• How does social interaction affect fluency?
• Does client stutter more when experiencing
greater demands on pragmatic or social
interaction skills?

22. Formulation Grammatical Encoding
• Does client stutter more in situations which
require more complex utterances?
• Does client stutter more on syntactically complex
utterances?
• Does client demonstrate problems with syntactic
development which might interfere with fluent
speech production?

23. Formulation Lexical Access
• Does client exhibit word finding problems that
might interfere with speech production?
• Does client exhibit frequent mislabelings or
nonsystematic speech errors which might
interfere with fluent speech production?
• Are some words harder to retrieve than
others?

24. Formulation Phonological Encoding
• Does client frequently produce nonsystematic
speech errors which might lead to production
self-repairs or speech disfluencies?
• Does client have difficulty retrieving the
phonological form of utterances (as in the tip
of the tongue phenomenon)?

25. Formulation Phonological Development
• Does client exhibit phonological delay which
might indicate a slow-to-develop linguistic
formulation system?
• Does client exhibit phonological delay which
makes communication more difficult and
increases
sensitivity about his/her speech?

26. Articulation
• Does client stutter more when using a faster
speaking rate?
• Does client stutter more when leaving less
time
for linguistic planning and formulation of
utterances?
• Does client have difficulties with
diadochokinetic (DDK) abilities that might
interfere with ability to rapidly and precisely
produce speech

27. Summary
• Several recent models of stuttering have
emphasized the role of language formulation
• These models are important for improving our
understanding of the nature of stuttering, in
part because of the research they encourage
• An increased understanding of the language
models on which these theories are based can
help us improve the diagnosis of stuttering

28. H2N
Hadapi, Hayati, Nikmati