An introduction to research for basic students

1. Introduction to Research
Ms. Betsy Cheriro

2. Research: Definition
• Def: Careful consideration of study regarding a particular concern or problem using
scientific methods.
• American sociologist Earl Robert Babbie said, “Research is a systematic inquiry to
describe, explain, predict, and control the observed phenomenon”.
• Involves inductive and deductive methods.”
• Inductive research methods analyze an observed event, while deductive methods
verify the observed event
• Inductive approaches are associated with qualitative research,
• Deductive methods are more commonly associated with quantitative analysis.

3. Uses of Health Research 1
 Approval of a drug for a particular indication- based on a series of controlled
clinical trials,
 Health research have led to significant discoveries, the development of new
therapies, and a remarkable improvement in health care and public health
 Economists-found-medical research can have an enormous impact on human
health and longevity, and resulting increased productivity of the population -
contributes greatly-national economy (Hatfield et al., 2001; Murphy and Topel,
1999) in addition to the individual benefits of improved health. If the research
enterprise is impeded, or if it is less robust, important societal interests are
affected.

4. Uses of health research 2
 Evidenced based medicine and practice- Many other examples of findings from
medical records research have changed the practice of medicine as well-
research underlies the estimate that tens of thousands of Americans die each
year from medical errors in the hospital, and research has provided valuable
information for reducing these medical errors by implementing health
information technology, such as e-prescribing
 Research findings-informed and influenced policy decisions at the national level-
use of electronic medical records increases, the pace of this form of research is
accelerating, and the opportunities to generate new knowledge about what
works in health care are expanding
 New research insights in health and disease- Advances in health information
technology are enabling a transformation in health research that could facilitate
studies that were not feasible in the past.

5. Research application
 To solve a specific, practical issue affecting an individual or group
education in order to find solutions that may improve health, solve
scientific problems or develop new technology
 Research allows one to pursue your interests, to learn something new, to
hone your problem-solving skills and to challenge yourself in new ways

6. Characteristics of research
 Good research follow systematic approach to capture accurate data. Researchers to practice
ethics and a code of conduct while making observations or drawing conclusions.
 Analysis-based on logical reasoning & involves both inductive and deductive methods.
 Real-time data and knowledge is derived from actual observations in natural settings.
 There is an in-depth analysis of all data collected so that there are no anomalies associated
with it.
 It creates a path for generating new questions. Existing data helps create more research
opportunities.
 It is analytical and uses all the available data so that there is no ambiguity in inference.
 Accuracy is one of the most critical aspects of research. The information must be accurate and
correct. Accuracy is measured in the instruments used, the calibrations of instruments or tools,
and the experiment’s final result.

7. Purpose of research
i. Exploratory: As name suggests:
 Exploratory studies explore a group of questions.
 Answers and analytics may not offer a conclusion to the perceived problem.
 Undertaken to handle new problem areas that haven’t been explored before.
 Lays foundation for more conclusive data collection and analysis.
ii. Descriptive:
 It focuses on expanding knowledge on current issues through a process of data collection.
 describe the behavior of a sample population.
 Only one variable is required to conduct the study.
 Three primary purposes of descriptive studies: describing, explaining & validating the findings.
iii. Explanatory or causal:
 Conducted to understand the impact of specific changes in existing standard procedures.
 Running experiments is the most popular form.

8. Methods used in Research- Qualitative & Quantitative
i. Qualitative research
 Qualitative research is a method that collects data using conversational methods, usually
open-ended questions.
 The responses collected are essentially non-numerical.
 Method helps a researcher understand what participants think and why they think in a
particular way.
 Types of qualitative methods include:
One-to-one Interview
Focus Groups
Ethnographic studies
Text Analysis
Case Study

9. ii. Quantitative methods
 Quantitative methods deal with numbers and measurable forms.
 Uses systematic way of investigating events or data.
 It answers questions to justify relationships with measurable variables to
either explain, predict, or control a phenomenon.
 Research is only valuable and useful when it is valid, accurate, and reliable.
 Incorrect results can lead to customer churn and a decrease in sales
Types of quantitative methods include:
o Survey research
o Descriptive research
o Correlational research

10. Types of research
 Participatory,
 Qualitative,
 Operational, and
 Evaluative.

11. 1. Participatory research
 Participatory research (PR) encompasses research designs, methods, and frameworks that use
systematic inquiry in direct collaboration with those affected by an issue being studied for the
purpose of action or change.
 Participatory Research (PR) is a research-to-action approach that emphasizes direct
engagement of local priorities and perspectives
 PR engages those who are not necessarily trained in research but belong to or represent the
interests of the people who are the focus of the research.
 Participatory research, shifts emphasis from action and change to collaborative research
activities. In health research, research funders recognize that the involvement of service users in
the research process makes good sense.
 Participatory research process enables co-researchers to step back cognitively from familiar
routines, forms of interaction, and power relationships in order to fundamentally question and
rethink established interpretations of situations and strategies.

12. Ct’ Participatory research
 The aim of PR is to produce knowledge in collaboration between scientists and practitioners.
The inquiry and the research questions develop out of the convergence of two perspectives –
that of science and of practice.
 Researchers utilizing a PR approach often choose research methods and tools that can be
conducted in a participatory, democratic manner that values genuine and meaningful
participation in the research process.
 Participatory research is a methodology that argues in favor of the possibility, the significance,
and the usefulness of involving research partners in the knowledge-production process
 Participatory research methods are geared towards planning and conducting the research
process with those people whose life-world and meaningful actions are under study.
 Participatory methodology is a research style, “an orientation to inquiry” that involves
participation of all research partners. This is the fundamental guiding principle for this research
approach.

13. Fundamental principles of participatory
research
i. Democracy as a Precondition for Participatory Research
 All research types need-social conditions-conducive to topic and epistemological approach in question. Nomothetic research,
carried out under almost any social conditions, participatory research requires a democratic social and political context.
ii. The Need for a "Safe Space"
 A great willingness on the part of participants to disclose their personal views of the situation, their own opinions and
experiences.
 Sufficient openness needs a “safe space”- participants be confident that their utterances will not be used against them,
iii. Who Participates? How is "The Community" Defined?
 Participatory research conducted directly with immediately affected persons; aim-reconstruction of their knowledge & ability
in a process of understanding and empowerment.
 Co-researchers are marginalized groups whose views are seldom sought, and whose voices are rarely heard. Normally, these
groups have little opportunity to articulate, justify, and assert their interests.
iv. Different Degrees of Participation
 Decide - which activities the co-researchers should – or can – participate in, and whether there should be different degrees of
participation for different groups. Does the ladder model of participation apply in this in this group?

14. 2. Qualitative research
 Qualitative research is the process:
- collecting,
- analyzing, and
- interpreting non-numerical data, such as language.
 Qualitative research can be used to understand how an individual subjectively perceives and gives
meaning to their social reality.
 Methods:
- Ethnography- Collecting data on human societies and culture of a group of people
- Focus group Discussions (FGDs)
- Key Informant Interview(KII)
- Contextual interviews- observe and interview users in their context
- Observation and
- Record keeping.

15. Characteristics of Qualitative research
 No Independent and dependent variables
 Do not develop hypothesis but the findings are often used in quantitative research
hypothesis formulation
 Do not pose refined research questions, have broad research question
 They usually don’t control or manipulate any variables
 Don’t make group comparisons
 Design is usually non-experimental
 Can be cross-sectional or longitudinal
 Can have multiple data collection points over time

16. 3. Operational research
 Def: Process of identifying and solving program problems. It is designed to increase the
efficiency, effectiveness and quality of service delivered by providers in a program; also
availability, accessibility and acceptability of services desired by users.
 Any research producing practically usable knowledge which can improve program
implementation regardless of the type of research falls within the boundaries of operations
research:-
 Knowledge- evidence, findings, information
 Program implementation-effectiveness, efficiency, quality, access, scale up, sustainability
 Research- design, methodology, approach

17. Operational research – process
 Identification of problems of programme
 Collection of data
 Analysis of data and formulation of hypothesis
 Deriving of possible solutions from hypothesis
 Choosing of optimal solution and forecasting
 Testing of potential solution/hypothesis for pilot projects
 Results utilization
 Results dissemination

18. Purpose of Operational research
 Looks at the problems affecting supply side of programs
 Provide health managers and administrators with information they need to improve the existing
health services and plan for future ones
 Seeks practical solution to problem situations and viable alternatives
 Diagnose and evaluates problems of programs and compares one service delivery approach against
another in terms of impact and cost effectiveness, quality and client acceptability
Importance of operational research in health
 To improve program outcomes in relation to medical care and prevention- identify constraints in
intervention strategies, diagnostics and therapeutics or control measures which prevent set targets
from being achieved.
 To assess the feasibility of new strategies or interventions- test new tools, strategies or approaches.
 To advocate for policy change- county, national and international levels- by describing experiences
and methods of implementation favorable for vulnerable population.

19. 4. Evaluative research
 Evaluative research-concerned with the evaluation of occurrences of social and organizational
programs or intervention.
 Essential question typically asked by evaluative studies is: has the response (e.g., a new policy
initiative or an behavior change) achieved its anticipated goals?
 A typical design used for the evaluation may consist of one group that is exposed to the
treatment (i.e., the new initiative) and a control group that is not.
 Since it is often not possible or ethical to randomly assign research participants to the two
groups, such studies are usually quasi-experimental.
 Evaluative research can be a valuable approach for examining retrospectively or cross-sectionally
the effect program activities.
Importance of evaluative research
 Assess the implemented activities and examine the short-time effects of these activities,
 Determine the impact of a program and
 Evaluate the success of the intervention.

20. Types of variables
 Variables are attributes to which various values can be assigned.
 A variable involves anything that can accept different values.
 Mentioned values might be different for different individuals and objects that the scores of an individual
on various tests can be considered as an example with regard to the issue.
Types of variables:
i. Independent - Independent variable affects change in the dependent variable. IV is a variable based on
which the dependent variable is predicted.
 This variable is chosen, manipulated and measured by the researcher aimed at figuring out its relationship
with other variables.
 The independent variable might have a positive or negative effect on the dependent variable; that is, any
kind of change in the independent variable might result in a change in the dependent variable.
i. Dependent - is a variable-researcher is interested and in contrary to the IV, the dependent variable is not
in the control of the researcher, and he/she is not able to manipulate it.
 It is a variable affected by the independent variable,
 Changed based on IV’s changes & researcher’s goal is predicting & describing its changeability.

21. Other types of variables
iii. Moderator-confounding Variable
 The moderator variable changes the relationship between the independent and dependent variable.
 Presence of the third variable affects the relationship which was expected from the main variables; thus, it can
be considered as the second independent variable.
Example: In an investigation of the effect of students’ IQ on their average, in case of significant difference
among the male and female students’ IQ and average, gender can be accounted as the moderator variable.
iv. Control Variables
 Researcher decides to delete or neutralize the effect of some variables since examining all the variables
simultaneously seems impossible and uncontrollable for him/her that the mentioned variables are called
control variables.
 Note: in some particular cases, moderator variable can play the control variable’ role.
Example: Investigating the effect of the simulated tests on the students’ success in the final tests__ simulated
tests and success in the final tests are independent and dependent variables, respectively. In this design, the
students’ major can be considered as the control variable.

22. Good data must be:
 Valid – founded, logical, rigorous, and impartial.
 Accurate – free of errors and including required details.
 Reliable – other people who investigate in the same way can produce
similar results.
 Timely – current and collected within an appropriate time frame.
 Complete – includes all the data you need to support your business
decisions

23. Scales of measurements
 Qualitative variables- non-numerical or categorical- involves- ticking boxes or questionnaires ex:
- Nominal- no order and are mutually exclusive- binary e.g. male-female,
- Ordinal- obvious ordered categories and are mutually exclusive- Likert scale- strongly agree, agree, disagree etc.
 Quantitative variables- numerical or scale- involves measures or counts:
- Interval – discrete – whole numerical values= integers e.g. no. of children
- Ratio- continuous- actual minute measures- takes any value e.g. height?
 Types of data
i. Numerical (Quantitative)= Data that is measured
- Discrete
- Continuous-scale
ii. Categorical (Qualitative)= Data that is counted
- Ordinal
- Nominal

25. I hope you get the difference
between variables and data
All the best!