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            
               Presented by: Daryn Hardwick
Graduate, Geography Department, Saint Cloud State University



    Faculty Advisors: Dr. Keith Rice, UWSP Geography Department
                     Eugene Martin, UWSP Geography Department
   Purpose
    o To better understand winter climatology for the state of
      Wisconsin


   Hypothesis
    o Ha = There has been a decrease in both the amount of snowfall
      and individual snowfall events in the state of Wisconsin between
      1974 and 2010.
    o Ho = There has been no change in the amount of snowfall or
      individual snowfall events in the state of Wisconsin between
      1974 and 2010.
   Economic Benefits
    o Winter Tourism - $7.9 billion annually
    o Cold Water Fishing - $2.3 billion/year industry
    o Snowpack Water Storage saves between $2.3 - 348 billion/year


   Economic Costs
    o Snow Removal - $2 billion/year
    o Road Closures - $2.5 billion/year
        • Lost retail trade, wages, and tax revenue
    o Damage to Utilities
        • $2 billion lost in 1994 snow storm in Mississippi
    o Flooding
        • $4.7 billion lost in 1997 Red River flooding in ND and MN
   The Impact of Snow/Winter Events on Humans:
    o 23.4 deaths per year caused
    o 161.7 injuries per year caused
    o $484 million in damage caused annually



   Groundwater Recharge
    o Urie (1966) determined about 2/3 of yearly groundwater
      recharge contributed by winter precipitation
   Decline in snow cover extent and duration
    o Choi et al. 2010, Davies 1994, Dêry and Brown 2007


   Great Lakes studies
    o Burnett et al. (2003) - increase in snowfall and both the lee and
      windward sides
    o Norton and Bolsenga (2007) – increase in lake-effect snowfall


   Wisconsin snowfall
    o Kunkel et al. (2009) – slight increase in snowfall
   Data
    o National Weather Service Cooperative Observer Program
        •   Precipitation, Snowfall, and Snow Depth
        •   October – April
        •   1974/75 – 2009/10 seasons
        •   152 weather stations, 11 out-of-state


   Analyses
    o Station Homogeny
    o Season Averages and Event Totals
    o Snowfall/Precipitation Ratio
    o Regression lines (trends)
   Station Homogeny – having <10% missing data over the
    study period (Kunkel et al. 2009)

    o 137/152 (90%) determined homogenous for precipitation
    o 120/152 (79%) determined homogenous for snowfall
    o 78/152 (51%) determined homogenous for snow depth
    o Only stations suitable in both precipitation and snowfall were
      used in final analysis, 117 stations (77%)


   2008-2010 Seasons
Trends in Spatial and Temporal Variability of Snowfall Totals and Events in Wisconsin, 1974 - 2010
Season Average                                          Number of Events




4.935 - 5.319                                            48.73 - 51.5
5.32 - 5.704                                             51.51 - 54.28
5.705 - 6.088                                            54.29 - 57.05
6.089 - 6.472                                            57.06 - 59.83
6.473 - 6.856                                            59.84 - 62.6
6.857 - 7.241                                            62.61 - 65.38
7.242 - 7.625                                            65.39 - 68.16
7.626 - 8.009                                            68.17 - 70.93
8.01 - 8.393    Avg. = 6.31167 (0.01 in./recorded day)   70.94 - 73.71   Avg. = 60.1371 days/season
Avg. Precipitation 1974-                                      Avg. Precipitation 1974-
            2010                                                          2007




                                                     < -0.0175
                                                     -0.0175 - -0.0125
                                                     -0.0125 - -0.0075
                                                     -0.0075 - -0.0025
                                                     -0.0025 - 0.0025
                                                     0.0025 - 0.0075
                                                     0.0075 - 0.01
                                                     0.01 - 0.0125
State Trend = 0.01063 (0.01 in./recorded day/year)   > 0.0125            State Trend = - 0.00112 (0.01 in./recorded day/year)
Precipitation Events 1974-                        Precipitation Events 1974-
           2010                                              2007




                                     > -0.3
                                     -0.3 - -0.2
                                     -0.2 - -0.1
                                     -0.1 - -0.005
                                     -0.005 - 0.005
                                     0.005 - 0.05
                                     0.05 - 0.1
                                     0.1 - 0.15
   Avg. = 0.05314 days/season/year   > 0.15            Avg. = - 0.02615 days/season/year
Season Average                                       Number of Events




1.417 - 1.963                                           17.5 - 21.32
1.964 - 2.508                                           21.33 - 25.13
2.509 - 3.053                                           25.14 - 28.95
3.054 - 3.599                                           28.96 - 32.77
3.6 - 4.144                                             32.78 - 36.59
4.145 - 4.689                                           36.6 - 40.4
4.69 - 5.235                                            40.41 - 44.22
5.236 - 5.78                                            44.23 - 48.04
5.781 - 6.325   Avg. = 2.30673 (0.1 in./recorded day)   48.05 - 51.86   Avg. = 26.8694 days/season
Avg. Snowfall 1974-2010                                  Avg. Snowfall 1974-2007




                                             < -0.0175
                                             -0.0175 - -0.0125
                                             -0.0125 - -0.0075
                                             -0.0075 - -0.0025
                                             -0.0025 - 0.0025
                                             0.0025 - 0.0075
                                             0.0075 - 0.01
                                             0.01 - 0.0125
Avg. = 0.00151 (0.1 in./recorded day/year)   > 0.0125            Avg. = - 0.0046 (0.1 in./recorded day/year)
Snowfall Events 1974-                              Snowfall Events 1974-
        2010                                               2007




                                    > -0.3
                                    -0.3 - -0.2
                                    -0.2 - -0.1
                                    -0.1 - -0.005
                                    -0.005 - 0.005
                                    0.005 - 0.05
                                    0.05 - 0.1
                                    0.1 - 0.15
Avg. = - 0.03975 days/season/year   > 0.15             Avg. = - 0.12792 days/season/year
Season Average




1.775 - 2.525
2.526 - 3.275
3.276 - 4.025
4.026 - 4.775
4.776 - 5.526
5.527 - 6.276
6.277 - 7.026
7.027 - 7.776
7.777 - 8.527                    Avg. = 3.77435
1974-2010 Trend                                               1974-2007 Trend




                                               < -0.0175
                                               -0.0175 - -0.0125
                                               -0.0125 - -0.0075
                                               -0.0075 - -0.0025
                                               -0.0025 - 0.0025
                                               0.0025 - 0.0075
                                               0.0075 - 0.0125
                                               0.0125 - 0.0175
Avg. = - 0.00529 (0.1 in./recorded day/year)   > 0.0175            Avg. = - 0.00774 (0.1 in./recorded day/year)
Precipitation as Rain                                                           Precipitation as Rain Event
                                                    Trend, 1975-2010                                                                   Trend, 1975-2010
                                      0.1                                                                                    1

                                                                                                                           0.8
                                     0.08
                                                                                                                           0.6
Trend (0.01 in./recorded day/year)




                                     0.06
                                                                                                                           0.4




                                                                                                Trend (days/season/year)
                                     0.04                                                                                  0.2

                                                                                                                             0
                                     0.02
                                                                                                                           -0.2

                                        0                                                                                  -0.4

                                                                                                                           -0.6
                                     -0.02
                                                                                                                           -0.8
                                     -0.04
                                                                                                                            -1

                                     -0.06                                                                                 -1.2
                                             41   42   43      44       45       46   47   48                                     41   42   43      44      45        46   47   48

                                                            Latitude (degrees)                                                                   Latitude (degrees)
Snowfall Trend , 1975-2010                                                                    Snowfall Events
                                    0.08                                                                                                   Trend, 1975-2010
                                                                                                                          0.6

                                    0.06
                                                                                                                          0.4
Trend (0.1 in./recorded day/year)




                                    0.04                                                                                  0.2




                                                                                               Trend (days/season/year)
                                                                                                                            0
                                    0.02
                                                                                                                          -0.2

                                       0                                                                                  -0.4


                                                                                                                          -0.6
                                    -0.02

                                                                                                                          -0.8
                                    -0.04
                                                                                                                           -1


                                    -0.06                                                                                 -1.2
                                            41   42   43      44       45       46   47   48                                     41   42      43      44       45       46   47   48
                                                           Latitude (degrees)                                                                      Latitude (degrees)
Precipitation/Snowfall Ratio Trend, 1975-2010
                                    0.06

                                    0.04
Trend (0.1 in./recorded day/year)




                                    0.02

                                       0

                                    -0.02

                                    -0.04

                                    -0.06

                                    -0.08

                                     -0.1

                                    -0.12

                                    -0.14
                                            41      42      43       44             45    46     47   48
                                                                     Latitude (degrees)
   Increase in Winter Precipitation
      o Significant at the ≥ 95% confidence level (p = 0.0001)

   Increase in Winter Snowfall
      o Not significant at the ≥ 95% confidence level (p = 0.3624)

   Decrease in Snowfall-to-Precipitation Ratio
     o Not significant at the ≥ 95% confidence level (p = 0.0526)

   Increase in Days with Precipitation
      o Significant at the ≥ 95% confidence level (p = 0.0365)

   Decrease in Days with Snowfall
     o Significant at the ≥ 95% confidence level (p = 0.0271)

   2008-2010 Seasons
     o Anomaly or new trend?
   Self Critiques
    o Climate data inherently unreliable?
    o Number of Events in a given season
    o Are t-test’s suitable for climatic data?
    o Is 36 years enough for a climate study?


   Future Research
    o Investigate above critiques
    o Do El Niño or La Niña have an effect?
    o Spatial and temporal trends in temperature
    o Trends in Snow Cover and Snow Depth
    o Snowfall-to-Precipitation Ratio
Adams, R., L. Houston, and R. Weiher, 2004: The Value of Snow and Snow Information        NOAA NCDC Climate-Radar Data Inventory, Cooperative Observer Program climate
                   Services.Report prepared for NOAA's National Operational               data, Data      used: 1974-2010.
Hydrological       Remote Sensing Center.
                                                                                          NOAA NWS Office of Climate, Water, and Weather Services, Natural Hazard
Assel, R. A., and D. M. Robertson, 1995: Changes in winter air temperatures near Lake     Statistics, 1940- 2009.
                     Michigan, 1851-1993, as determined from regional lake-ice records.
                     Limnol. Oceanogr., 40(1), 165-176.                                   NOAA NWS, Summary of Natural Hazard Statistics for 2000 in the United States, 2000, [3
                                                                                          pp.]
Braham, R. R., and M. J. Dungey, 1984. Quantitative Estimates of the Effect of Lake
                                      Michigan on Snowfall. J. Climate and Applied        NOAA NWS, Summary of Natural Hazard Statistics for 2001 in the United States, 2001, [3
Meteorology, 23, 940-                 949.                                                pp.]

Burnett A. W., M. E. Kirby, H. T. Mullins, and W. P. Patterson, 2003: Increasing Great    NOAA NWS, Summary of Natural Hazard Statistics for 2002 in the United States, 2002, [3
Lake-               Effect Snowfall during the Twentieth Century: A Regional Response     pp.]
to                  Global Warming? J. Climate 16,3535-3541.
                                                                                          NOAA NWS, Summary of Natural Hazard Statistics for 2003 in the United States, 2003, [3
Choi, G., D.A. Robinson and S. Kang, 2010: Changing Northern Hemisphere snow              pp.]
seasons.            Journal of Climate, 23, 5305-5310.
                                                                                          NOAA NWS, Summary of Natural Hazard Statistics for 2004 in the United States, 2004, [3
Davies, T. D., 1994. Snow Cover-atmosphere interactions. Intl. Association of             pp.]
Hydrological        Sciences, Publ. No. 223, 3-13.
                                                                                          NOAA NWS, Summary of Natural Hazard Statistics for 2005 in the United States, 2005, [3
Déry, S. J., and R. D. Brown, 2007. Recent Northern Hemisphere snow cover extent          pp.]
trends               and implications for the snow-albedo feedback. Geophys. Research
                     Letters, 34, 1-6.                                                    NOAA NWS, Summary of Natural Hazard Statistics for 2006 in the United States, 2006, [3
                                                                                          pp.]
Kunkel, K.E., M. Palecki, L. Ensor, K.G. Hubbard, D. Robinson, K. Redmond, and D.
Easterling,         2009: Trends in 20th Century U.S. snowfall using a quality-           NOAA NWS, Summary of Natural Hazard Statistics for 2007 in the United States, 2007, [4
controlled          data set. J. Atmos. Ocean. Tech., 26, 33-44.                          pp.]

Kunkel, K. E., M. Palecki, K.G. Hubbard, D.Robinson, K. Redmond, and D.                   NOAA NWS, Summary of Natural Hazard Statistics for 2008 in the United States, 2008, [6
Easterling, 2007: Trend identification in 20th Century U.S. snowfall: The Challenges.     pp.]
J.                  Atmos. Oceanic Technol., 24, 64-73.
                                                                                          NOAA NWS, Summary of Natural Hazard Statistics for 2009 in the United States, 2009, [4
Leathers, D. J., and D. A. Robinson, 1993. The Association between Extremes in North      pp.]
                     American Snow Cover Extent and United States Temperatures. J. of
                     Climate, 6, 1345-1355.                                               Norton, D. C., and S. J. Bolsenga, 1993. Spatiotemporal Trends in Lake Effect and
                                                                                          Continental         Snowfall in the Laurentian Great Lakes, 1951-1980. J. of Climate, 6,
McCabe G. J., Clark M. P., and Serreze M. C., 2001: Trends in Northern Hemisphere                             1943-1956.
surface            cyclone frequency and intensity. J. Climate 14, 2763–2768.
                                                                                          NWS Weather Forecast Office, Cooperative Observer Program, 2009.
       
Contact: hada1102@stcloudstate.edu

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Trends in Spatial and Temporal Variability of Snowfall Totals and Events in Wisconsin, 1974 - 2010

  • 1.  Presented by: Daryn Hardwick Graduate, Geography Department, Saint Cloud State University Faculty Advisors: Dr. Keith Rice, UWSP Geography Department Eugene Martin, UWSP Geography Department
  • 2. Purpose o To better understand winter climatology for the state of Wisconsin  Hypothesis o Ha = There has been a decrease in both the amount of snowfall and individual snowfall events in the state of Wisconsin between 1974 and 2010. o Ho = There has been no change in the amount of snowfall or individual snowfall events in the state of Wisconsin between 1974 and 2010.
  • 3. Economic Benefits o Winter Tourism - $7.9 billion annually o Cold Water Fishing - $2.3 billion/year industry o Snowpack Water Storage saves between $2.3 - 348 billion/year  Economic Costs o Snow Removal - $2 billion/year o Road Closures - $2.5 billion/year • Lost retail trade, wages, and tax revenue o Damage to Utilities • $2 billion lost in 1994 snow storm in Mississippi o Flooding • $4.7 billion lost in 1997 Red River flooding in ND and MN
  • 4. The Impact of Snow/Winter Events on Humans: o 23.4 deaths per year caused o 161.7 injuries per year caused o $484 million in damage caused annually  Groundwater Recharge o Urie (1966) determined about 2/3 of yearly groundwater recharge contributed by winter precipitation
  • 5. Decline in snow cover extent and duration o Choi et al. 2010, Davies 1994, Dêry and Brown 2007  Great Lakes studies o Burnett et al. (2003) - increase in snowfall and both the lee and windward sides o Norton and Bolsenga (2007) – increase in lake-effect snowfall  Wisconsin snowfall o Kunkel et al. (2009) – slight increase in snowfall
  • 6. Data o National Weather Service Cooperative Observer Program • Precipitation, Snowfall, and Snow Depth • October – April • 1974/75 – 2009/10 seasons • 152 weather stations, 11 out-of-state  Analyses o Station Homogeny o Season Averages and Event Totals o Snowfall/Precipitation Ratio o Regression lines (trends)
  • 7. Station Homogeny – having <10% missing data over the study period (Kunkel et al. 2009) o 137/152 (90%) determined homogenous for precipitation o 120/152 (79%) determined homogenous for snowfall o 78/152 (51%) determined homogenous for snow depth o Only stations suitable in both precipitation and snowfall were used in final analysis, 117 stations (77%)  2008-2010 Seasons
  • 9. Season Average Number of Events 4.935 - 5.319 48.73 - 51.5 5.32 - 5.704 51.51 - 54.28 5.705 - 6.088 54.29 - 57.05 6.089 - 6.472 57.06 - 59.83 6.473 - 6.856 59.84 - 62.6 6.857 - 7.241 62.61 - 65.38 7.242 - 7.625 65.39 - 68.16 7.626 - 8.009 68.17 - 70.93 8.01 - 8.393 Avg. = 6.31167 (0.01 in./recorded day) 70.94 - 73.71 Avg. = 60.1371 days/season
  • 10. Avg. Precipitation 1974- Avg. Precipitation 1974- 2010 2007 < -0.0175 -0.0175 - -0.0125 -0.0125 - -0.0075 -0.0075 - -0.0025 -0.0025 - 0.0025 0.0025 - 0.0075 0.0075 - 0.01 0.01 - 0.0125 State Trend = 0.01063 (0.01 in./recorded day/year) > 0.0125 State Trend = - 0.00112 (0.01 in./recorded day/year)
  • 11. Precipitation Events 1974- Precipitation Events 1974- 2010 2007 > -0.3 -0.3 - -0.2 -0.2 - -0.1 -0.1 - -0.005 -0.005 - 0.005 0.005 - 0.05 0.05 - 0.1 0.1 - 0.15 Avg. = 0.05314 days/season/year > 0.15 Avg. = - 0.02615 days/season/year
  • 12. Season Average Number of Events 1.417 - 1.963 17.5 - 21.32 1.964 - 2.508 21.33 - 25.13 2.509 - 3.053 25.14 - 28.95 3.054 - 3.599 28.96 - 32.77 3.6 - 4.144 32.78 - 36.59 4.145 - 4.689 36.6 - 40.4 4.69 - 5.235 40.41 - 44.22 5.236 - 5.78 44.23 - 48.04 5.781 - 6.325 Avg. = 2.30673 (0.1 in./recorded day) 48.05 - 51.86 Avg. = 26.8694 days/season
  • 13. Avg. Snowfall 1974-2010 Avg. Snowfall 1974-2007 < -0.0175 -0.0175 - -0.0125 -0.0125 - -0.0075 -0.0075 - -0.0025 -0.0025 - 0.0025 0.0025 - 0.0075 0.0075 - 0.01 0.01 - 0.0125 Avg. = 0.00151 (0.1 in./recorded day/year) > 0.0125 Avg. = - 0.0046 (0.1 in./recorded day/year)
  • 14. Snowfall Events 1974- Snowfall Events 1974- 2010 2007 > -0.3 -0.3 - -0.2 -0.2 - -0.1 -0.1 - -0.005 -0.005 - 0.005 0.005 - 0.05 0.05 - 0.1 0.1 - 0.15 Avg. = - 0.03975 days/season/year > 0.15 Avg. = - 0.12792 days/season/year
  • 15. Season Average 1.775 - 2.525 2.526 - 3.275 3.276 - 4.025 4.026 - 4.775 4.776 - 5.526 5.527 - 6.276 6.277 - 7.026 7.027 - 7.776 7.777 - 8.527 Avg. = 3.77435
  • 16. 1974-2010 Trend 1974-2007 Trend < -0.0175 -0.0175 - -0.0125 -0.0125 - -0.0075 -0.0075 - -0.0025 -0.0025 - 0.0025 0.0025 - 0.0075 0.0075 - 0.0125 0.0125 - 0.0175 Avg. = - 0.00529 (0.1 in./recorded day/year) > 0.0175 Avg. = - 0.00774 (0.1 in./recorded day/year)
  • 17. Precipitation as Rain Precipitation as Rain Event Trend, 1975-2010 Trend, 1975-2010 0.1 1 0.8 0.08 0.6 Trend (0.01 in./recorded day/year) 0.06 0.4 Trend (days/season/year) 0.04 0.2 0 0.02 -0.2 0 -0.4 -0.6 -0.02 -0.8 -0.04 -1 -0.06 -1.2 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 Latitude (degrees) Latitude (degrees)
  • 18. Snowfall Trend , 1975-2010 Snowfall Events 0.08 Trend, 1975-2010 0.6 0.06 0.4 Trend (0.1 in./recorded day/year) 0.04 0.2 Trend (days/season/year) 0 0.02 -0.2 0 -0.4 -0.6 -0.02 -0.8 -0.04 -1 -0.06 -1.2 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 Latitude (degrees) Latitude (degrees)
  • 19. Precipitation/Snowfall Ratio Trend, 1975-2010 0.06 0.04 Trend (0.1 in./recorded day/year) 0.02 0 -0.02 -0.04 -0.06 -0.08 -0.1 -0.12 -0.14 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 Latitude (degrees)
  • 20. Increase in Winter Precipitation o Significant at the ≥ 95% confidence level (p = 0.0001)  Increase in Winter Snowfall o Not significant at the ≥ 95% confidence level (p = 0.3624)  Decrease in Snowfall-to-Precipitation Ratio o Not significant at the ≥ 95% confidence level (p = 0.0526)  Increase in Days with Precipitation o Significant at the ≥ 95% confidence level (p = 0.0365)  Decrease in Days with Snowfall o Significant at the ≥ 95% confidence level (p = 0.0271)  2008-2010 Seasons o Anomaly or new trend?
  • 21. Self Critiques o Climate data inherently unreliable? o Number of Events in a given season o Are t-test’s suitable for climatic data? o Is 36 years enough for a climate study?  Future Research o Investigate above critiques o Do El Niño or La Niña have an effect? o Spatial and temporal trends in temperature o Trends in Snow Cover and Snow Depth o Snowfall-to-Precipitation Ratio
  • 22. Adams, R., L. Houston, and R. Weiher, 2004: The Value of Snow and Snow Information NOAA NCDC Climate-Radar Data Inventory, Cooperative Observer Program climate Services.Report prepared for NOAA's National Operational data, Data used: 1974-2010. Hydrological Remote Sensing Center. NOAA NWS Office of Climate, Water, and Weather Services, Natural Hazard Assel, R. A., and D. M. Robertson, 1995: Changes in winter air temperatures near Lake Statistics, 1940- 2009. Michigan, 1851-1993, as determined from regional lake-ice records. Limnol. Oceanogr., 40(1), 165-176. NOAA NWS, Summary of Natural Hazard Statistics for 2000 in the United States, 2000, [3 pp.] Braham, R. R., and M. J. Dungey, 1984. Quantitative Estimates of the Effect of Lake Michigan on Snowfall. J. Climate and Applied NOAA NWS, Summary of Natural Hazard Statistics for 2001 in the United States, 2001, [3 Meteorology, 23, 940- 949. pp.] Burnett A. W., M. E. Kirby, H. T. Mullins, and W. P. Patterson, 2003: Increasing Great NOAA NWS, Summary of Natural Hazard Statistics for 2002 in the United States, 2002, [3 Lake- Effect Snowfall during the Twentieth Century: A Regional Response pp.] to Global Warming? J. Climate 16,3535-3541. NOAA NWS, Summary of Natural Hazard Statistics for 2003 in the United States, 2003, [3 Choi, G., D.A. Robinson and S. Kang, 2010: Changing Northern Hemisphere snow pp.] seasons. Journal of Climate, 23, 5305-5310. NOAA NWS, Summary of Natural Hazard Statistics for 2004 in the United States, 2004, [3 Davies, T. D., 1994. Snow Cover-atmosphere interactions. Intl. Association of pp.] Hydrological Sciences, Publ. No. 223, 3-13. NOAA NWS, Summary of Natural Hazard Statistics for 2005 in the United States, 2005, [3 Déry, S. J., and R. D. Brown, 2007. Recent Northern Hemisphere snow cover extent pp.] trends and implications for the snow-albedo feedback. Geophys. Research Letters, 34, 1-6. NOAA NWS, Summary of Natural Hazard Statistics for 2006 in the United States, 2006, [3 pp.] Kunkel, K.E., M. Palecki, L. Ensor, K.G. Hubbard, D. Robinson, K. Redmond, and D. Easterling, 2009: Trends in 20th Century U.S. snowfall using a quality- NOAA NWS, Summary of Natural Hazard Statistics for 2007 in the United States, 2007, [4 controlled data set. J. Atmos. Ocean. Tech., 26, 33-44. pp.] Kunkel, K. E., M. Palecki, K.G. Hubbard, D.Robinson, K. Redmond, and D. NOAA NWS, Summary of Natural Hazard Statistics for 2008 in the United States, 2008, [6 Easterling, 2007: Trend identification in 20th Century U.S. snowfall: The Challenges. pp.] J. Atmos. Oceanic Technol., 24, 64-73. NOAA NWS, Summary of Natural Hazard Statistics for 2009 in the United States, 2009, [4 Leathers, D. J., and D. A. Robinson, 1993. The Association between Extremes in North pp.] American Snow Cover Extent and United States Temperatures. J. of Climate, 6, 1345-1355. Norton, D. C., and S. J. Bolsenga, 1993. Spatiotemporal Trends in Lake Effect and Continental Snowfall in the Laurentian Great Lakes, 1951-1980. J. of Climate, 6, McCabe G. J., Clark M. P., and Serreze M. C., 2001: Trends in Northern Hemisphere 1943-1956. surface cyclone frequency and intensity. J. Climate 14, 2763–2768. NWS Weather Forecast Office, Cooperative Observer Program, 2009.
  • 23.  Contact: hada1102@stcloudstate.edu