Lecture note on
Advances in Advanced Animal Nutrition
By
Yisehak Kechero (PhD, Associate professor)
1

Nutrition:
• Process by which living organism receives
nutrients and uses them to promote it’s vital
activities
– Animals use nutrients to enable them to:
• maintain . grow
• reproduce . lay eggs
• lactate . produce wool
• work
Chapter 1
Terminologies
2

Terminologies
Nutrient: Nutrients are chemical substances in food
that body cells use for body function (growth,
maintenance, and repair)
Diet: Selection of food which is normally eaten by
animal or population
Food: Substance when eaten , digested, absorbed
provide at least one nutrient
Balanced diet : Diet that provide adequate amount
of all nutrients
3

Terminologies
Malnutrition: Caused by incorrect amount of
nutrient intake
Nutritional status:
Health status that produced by balanced between
requirements and intake
Dietitian/nutritionist: Persons who applies
science of nutrition to animal in health and
disease
4

Terminologies
Metabolism :
process by which living systems acquire and use free
energy to carry out vital processes
Anabolism (biosynthesis ):
Complex molecules are synthesized from simpler ones
Catabolism(degradation): Complex molecules are broken
to simpler ones
Digestion: Breakdown of feed nutrients into suitable form
for absorption
Absorption: Transfer of digested nutrients from GIT into
circulating blood or lymph systems
5

Role of Metabolism in Nutrition
Definition: the sum of all biochemical changes that take
place in a living organism.
Group these reactions into two types:
anabolic catabolic
Reactions: require energy release energy
Produce: more complex more simple compounds
compounds
Modus
Operandi: Occurs in small steps, each of which is controlled
by specific enzymes.
6

Chapter 2
FEED ANALYSIS SYSTEMS
• Feed analysis systems
– Proximate analysis system (Weende system)
• Developed in 1864 at Weende Experiment Station
in Germany
– the analysis of feed into its basic components
• Dry matter or water, crude protein, crude fiber,
ether extract, ash, nitrogen free extract (NFE)
– Detergent analysis system (Van Soest
system)
• Developed in 1964 at USDA Beltsville Research
Center 7

PROXIMATE ANALYSIS COMPONENTS
• Dry matter
• Ash (total ash or crude ash)
• Crude protein (CP)
• Ether extract (crude fat)
• Crude fiber (CF)
• Nitrogen-free extract (NFE)
8

• Dry matter (DM)
– Partial DM, Lab. DM, Actual/ total DM
– DM is weight of a feed remaining after a feed is dried in
a 100oC oven for 24 hours/105°C 16 hr etc
• DM,% = wt after drying/wt before drying  100%
• % moisture = 100 – DM,%
Reagents: none
Avg. 2 grams used
– Problems with method
• Errors from losses of volatile components
– Particularly a problem with fermented feeds
– Can be avoided by freeze drying
• Drying at > 100oC destroys sample for further
analysis
– Can be avoided by freeze drying or drying at 50-
65oC for 72-48 hours in preparation for analysis
AOAC 9

Dry matter
• Percent DM = (W3-W1)100/W2-W1)
• Where,
– W1= weight of empty container,
– W2= weight of empty container plus sample
– W3 = weight of container and sample after drying
• Varies with types of feeds (ex green feeds, dry
feeds, milk, silage, hay )
• Equipment: paper bag, forced air drying oven,
analytical balance,Desiccator
• Qulity control, Constant weight, duplicate 10

• Ash ( Crude ash)
– Material remaining after oxidation of a sample
at 600oC for 2 hours in a muffle furnace
• % Ash = wt after ashing/sample wt x 100%
• % Organic matter = 100 - % ash
– Equipment: Incineration dish, Analytical
balance, Muffle furnace, Desiccator
– % Ash = (W3- W2) x 100/ (W2-W1)
– Problems
• No indication of amounts of individual minerals
• Some minerals (Sulfur, Selenium, Zinc, Iodine are
lost)
– Significance
• May indicate soil contamination or adulteration of
feedstuff or diet. 11

• Crude protein (CP)
– % Crude protein = %N x 6.25
– %N determination
• Kjeldahl N
Sample→Boil in conc. H2SO4→(NH4)2SO4→Add conc. NaOH, → Titrate
catalyst distill NH3, and trap NH4 borate
in boric acid
• blue colour....pink colour
Factor of 6.25 assumes that most proteins contain 16% N
CP,% = measured mg N/100 mg sample x 100 mg protein/16 mg N
= measured mg N/100 mg/sample x 6.25
Coversion Factors:
 6.25 for all forages, compounded feeds and mixed feeds
 5.7 for cereal grains
 6.38 for milk
12

Crude protein
• % N = (Vs-Vb) x M(HCl) x 1 x 14.007/ (Wx
10)
– Vs= ml Hcl needed to titrate the sample
– Vb = ml Hcl needed for the blank test
– M (HCl) = molarity of HCl
– 1= the acid factor
– 14.007= molecular weight of N,
– 10 = conversion from mg/g to % (1.4007 to
14.007), and weight of the sample (g)
Quality control: control standard should be used, duplicate
analysis,use blank 13

• Problems with crude protein procedure
– Sources of N
• True protein
– Chains of amino acids bound by peptide linkages
– Can meet the protein requirements of either nonruminant or
ruminant animals
• Nonprotein nitrogen
– Forms
» Free amino acids
» Nucleic acids
» Ammonia
» Urea
– Can meet the protein requirements of ruminant animals
» Urea and biuret commonly added to ruminant diets
– Can not meet the protein requirements of nonruminant animals
– Says nothing about the amino acid composition of the
feed source
• Commonly assume that the concentration of individual amino
acids is constant within the protein a given feedstuff
• Can analyze for individual amino acids
14

– Crude protein says nothing about the digestibility of a
protein
• Varies with feedstuff
% Crude protein % Protein Digestibility
Soybean meal 45 90
Feather meal 80 75
• Varies with heat damage
– When overheated, protein will bind to the cell wall carbohydrates
particularly across lysine
– Causes
» Molding of forages
» Over-heating during processing
» Over-drying of grains or soybeans
– Referred to as the Maillard or Browning Reaction
– Results
% Crude protein % Protein Digestibility
Well-preserved alfalfa hay 18 90
Heat-damaged alfalfa hay 18 60 15

Crude Protein
Non-protein
nitrogen
True protein
(60 to 80%)
Essential amino acids
Arginine (Arg)
Histidine (His)
Isoleucine (Ile)
Leucine (Leu)
Lysine (Lys)
Methionine (Met)
Phenylalanine (Phe)
Threonine (Thr)
Tryptophan (Trp)
Valine (Val)
Non-essential
amino acids
Alanine (Ala)
Asparagine (Asn)
Aspartic acid (Asp)
Cysteine (Cys)
Glutamic acid (Glu)
Glutamine (Gln)
Glycine (Gly)
Proline (Pro)
Serine (Ser)
Tyrosine (Tyr)
Amides
Amines
Amino acids
Peptides
Nucleic acids
Nitrates
Ammonia
Urea
Lignified
nitrogen
16

• Ether extract (EE)
– Also called crude fat
– Material removed by refluxing ether through a feed
sample for 4 hours
% Ether extract = (Sample wt-residue after ether
extract)/Sample wt x 100%
– Theoretically represents fat content of the feedstuff
• A high ether extract content should indicate a high
energy concentration
– Problem with procedure
• Ether extract consists of:
–True lipids
»Fats and oils
–Non-nutritional ether soluble components
»Fat-soluble vitamins
»Chlorophyll
»Pigments
»Volatile oils
»Waxes 17

Crude fiber (CF)
– Procedure
Sample→Extract with dilute H2SO4 →Residue→Burn at 600oC→Ash
followed by dilute NaOH
% CF = (Residue wt-Ash wt)/sample wt x 100%
– Theoretically represents
• the structural carbohydrates (Cellulose and lignin)
– Limited digestibility in ruminants
– Poor digestibility in nonruminants
• Lignin
– Indigestible by ruminants and nonruminants
– Problems with procedure
• Poor recovery of components
% recovered
– Cellulose 90
– Hemicellulose 50-60
– Lignin 13-70 18

• Nitrogen-free extract (NFE)
– No actual analysis
– Calculation by difference
• %NFE = %DM – (%ash+%CP+%EE+%CF)
– Theoretically represents:
• Starch
• Sugars
– Problems:
• Contains all of the errors from other analyses
– Largest error is unrecovered lignin will be placed in NFE
19

DETERGENT ANALYSIS SYSTEM
20

• Neutral detergent fiber (NDF)
– Consists of hemicellulose, cellulose, lignin, cell wall
bound protein and insoluble ash
– Significe:
• Highly related to feed intake
• DMI, % BW = 120/% NDF
• Acid detergent fiber (ADF)
– Consists of cellulose, lignin, poorly digested protein,
and insoluble ash
– Significance:
• Highly related to digestibility and energy concentration
• DDM% = 88.9 – (.779 x %ADF)
• NEl, Mcal/lb (for legumes) = 1.011 – (0.0113 x %ADF)
– Combination of DDM (determined from ADF) and DMI
(determined from NDF) is used to determine Relative
Feed Value (RFV)
• RFV=DDM x DMI / 1.29
• Used for hay marketing
21

– Nitrogen bound to acid detergent fiber is a measure of
heat-damaged protein
• Called ADIN or ADF-CP
– Procedure
Sample→Extract with AD→ADF→Analyze N by
Kjeldahl procedure
ADF-CP, % of total CP= %ADFN x 6.25/%CP x 100%
– Relationship to protein digestibility (called adjusted CP)
• If ADF-CP, % of total CP <14, ADIN is considered digestible
– Adjusted CP = CP
• If ADF-CP, % of total CP is >14 and <20
– Adjusted CP = ((100 – (ADF-CP, % of CP – 7))/100) x CP
• If ADF-CP, % of total CP is > 20
– Adjusted CP = CP – ADF-CP, % of CP
22

• N bound to NDF and ADF used to determine
rumen degradable, rumen undegradable, and
indigestible fractions
Rumen degradable protein = Total CP – (NDFCP, % of CP xTotal CP)
Rumen undegradable protein = (NDFCP, % of CP xTotal CP) –
(ADFCP, % of CP xTotal CP)
Indigestible protein = (ADFCP, % of CP xTotal CP)
23

OTHER ANALYTICAL PROCEDURES
• Near infrared reflectance spectroscopy (NIRS)
– Determines the concentrations of protein, amino acids,
lipids, and carbohydrates based on absorption of near
infrared light
– Advantages
• Rapid
• Used by most commercial labs
– Limitations
• Requires calibration
• Inability to measure heterogeneous molecules like lignin
• Inability to measure minerals
24

• Atomic absorption spectroscopy
– Used for mineral analysis
– Procedure
• Sample ashed and extracted into a solvent
• Dissolved sample sucked into a flame with a light at a
specific wavelength going through it
• Absorption of light directly proportional to absorption of light
– Limitation
• Expense
• High performance liquid chromatography
– Used of amino acids, lipids and vitamins
– Procedure
• Sample dissolved in organic solvent injected into column
• Column differentially separates components
• Detector measures components as they through the column
– Limitation
• Expense
25

26

Chemical Evaluation
3/Van Soest Fiber Analysis --
replaces the Weende System of
crude fiber analysis with neutral
and acid detergent fiber (NDF
and ADF)
 more accurate
 more precisely identify the
fiber components
Van Soest Fiber
Air-dry Feed Sample
Boil with neutral
detergent, pH = 7
Neutral Detergent Fiber
cellulose, hemicellulose,
and lignin
Neutral Detergent Solubles
cell contents and pectin
Boil in acid
detergent, pH = 0
Acid Detergent Fiber
cellulose and lignin
Acid Detergent Solubles
hemicellulose
Lignin
Rinse in 72% sulfuric acid
Cellulose
(dissolved) 27

Chapter 3
Classification of feeds
28

Roughages
• Contains more than 18% crude fiber when
that are dry
Hulls Straw
Silage
Roughage
Hay
Legume/non-
legume forages
Pasture
29

Legume Roughages
• Can take nitrogen from the air
• Able to due so because they have nodules on
their roots that contain bacteria
• These bacteria fix the nitrogen from the air in soil
and make it available for the plant to use
– Do so by combining the free nitrogen with other
elements to form nitrogen compounds
• All the clovers, alfalfa, soybeans, peas and
beans etc
• Usually higher in protein than nonlegume
roughages
30

Nonlegume Roughages
• Cannot use nitrogen from the air
• Lower in protein
• Many common livestock feeds are
nonlegume
31

Concentrates
• Contains less than 18% crude fiber when
dry
• Two classes
– Protein supplements
– Energy feeds
32

Protein Supplements
• 20% or more CP protein
• Divided into 2 groups based on their
source
33

Protein Supplements
• Animal proteins
– Come from animals or
animal by-products
– Common: meat and
bone meal, fish meal,
dried milk (whole &
skimmed), blood meal,
feather meal
– Most contain more than
47% crude protein
– More balanced essential
amino acids
– Variable quality
compared to origin
proteins
• Plant Proteins
– Come from plants
– Common: soybean oil
meal, cottonseed meal,
linseed oil meal, peanut oil
meal, corn gluten feed,
brewers dried grains,
distillers dried grains
– Most contain less than
47% crude protein
– Soybean oil meal is used
most
• Can supply necessary
amino acids for swine
and poultry 34

Commercial Protein
Supplements
• Made by commercial feed
companies
• Mixes of animal and plant
protein feeds
• Usually made for 1 class
of animal
• Often mix of minerals,
vitamins, antibiotics
• Feed tag needs to be
read and feeding
directions followed
35

Energy Feeds
• Feeds with less than 20% crude protein
• Most grains
– Oats, corn, sorghum, barley, rye, wheat,
ground ear corn, wheat bran, wheat
middling's, dried citrus pulp, dried beet pulp,
dried whey
– Corn is the most widely used
– Followed by sorghum grain, oats, barley
36

Chapter 4
Nutrients
6 major classes
1. Water
2. carbohydrates -
3. lipids -
4. proteins
5. vitamins
6. minerals
Energy
37

Figure 5–1: The essential nutrients.
38

Water (H2O)
• Overlook when formulating rations—assumed animals
have access to good quality water
– EXTREMELY IMPORTANT
• Cheapest & most abundant nutrient
• May lose 100% of body fat, 50% of body protein and live
• Lose 10% of body water, dehydration occurs and may
result in death (species dependent)
• 65-85% of body weight at birth
• 45-60% of body weight at maturity
• Many tissues contain 70-90% water
39

Functions of Water
1. Transport of nutrients and excretions
2. Chemical reactions and solvent
properties
3. Body temperature regulation
4. Aids in cell shape maintenance
5. Lubricates and cushions joints and
organs
40

Sources of Water
1. Drinking water
2. Water in feed
3. Metabolic water
41

Sources of Water
1. Drinking
– Pigs = 1.5-3 gal/hd/day
– Sheep = 1-3 gal/hd/day
– Cattle = 10-14 gal/hd/day
– Horses = 10-14 gal/hd/day
– Poultry = 2 parts water:1 part feed
42

Sources of Water
2. Water contained in feeds
• Highly variable in feedstuffs
• Grains = 9-30% water
• Forages
– Hay <5%
– Silage 65-75%
– Lush young grass >90%
43

Calculating Water Content of
Feedstuffs
• 100 kgs of silage (65% moisture) contains
how much actual feed?
• 100 kgs * .65 = 65 kgs of water
• 100 kgs – 65 kgs = 35 kgs of feed
44

Sources of Water
3. Metabolic Water
- Results from the oxidation of organic
nutrients in the tissues
- 1 g of carbohydrates = 0.6 g of water
- 1 g of protein = 0.4 g of water
- 1 g of fat = 1 g of water
- May account for 5-10% of total water
intake
45

Sources of Water Loss
• Urine
• Feces
• Lungs
• Skin
• Milk
46

Factors Affecting Water Intake
• Temperature & humidity
• Dietary factors
–High moisture feeds reduce drinking
–Fiber, DM intake, salt, and protein
increase drinking
• Lactating vs dry
• Water quality
47

Water Absorption
• Readily absorbed
– Monogastrics/Ruminants: Jejunum, Ileum,
Cecum, Large Intestine
– Ruminants: Rumen and Omasum
48

CARBOHYDRATES (CHO)
49

Carbohydrates (CHO)
• Primary component found in livestock feeds
– 70% of DM of forages
– 80% of DM of grains
• Serve as source of energy or bulk (fiber) in the
diet
– Not ESSENTIAL/Technical nutrients
• Synthesized by animals
50

Types of CHO
• Monosaccharides: 1 sugar molecule
– Glucose
• Primary sugar body uses for fuel, plants are rich in
glucose
– Fructose
• Found in honey (75%), fruits, and cane sugar
• Sweetest sugar, molasses
– Galactose
• Found many plants tissues
• Present in low concentrations in animal feedstuffs
51

Monosaccharide (Glucose)
Formula: C6H12O6
52

53
Galactose, sometimes abbreviated Gal, is a monosaccharide sugar that is less
sweet than glucose. It is a C-4 epimer of glucose. Galactan is a polymer of the
sugar galactose found in hemicellulose

Types of CHO
• Disaccharides: 2 sugar molecules linked by a
glycosidic bond
– a sugar consisting of two linked monosaccharide units
• Forexample
– Lactose (galactose + glucose),… lactase
• Milk sugar
– Sucrose (fructose + glucose),… sucrase
• Table sugar
– Maltose,…Maltase
• also known as maltobiose or malt sugar, is a disaccharide formed
from two units of glucose joined with an α(1→4) bond, formed
from a condensation reaction
54

Disaccharide (Sucrose)
55

Disaccharides:
(+)-maltose “malt sugar”
two glucose units (alpha)
(+)-cellobiose
two glucose units (beta)
Cellobiose, a reducing sugar, consists of two β-glucose
molecules linked by a β(1→4) bond. It can be
hydrolyzed to glucose enzymatically or with acid
56
C12H22O11

(+)-maltose
O
H
H
HO
H
H
OH
H
OH
OH
O
H
HO
H
HO
H
OH
H
H
OH
O
two glucose units
alpha C-1 to C-4
reducing sugar
O
H
HO
H
HO
H
H
OH
H
OH
O
H
O
H
HO
H
H
OH
H
OH
OH
(+)-cellobiose
two glucose units
beta C-1 to C-4
reducing sugar
57

O
H
HO
H
HO
H
OH
H
H
OH
glucose alpha C-1
to beta C1 fructose
O
HO
H
H
HO
H
H
OH
H
OH
O
H
O
H
HO
H
H
OH
H
OH
OH galactose beta C-1
to C-4 glucose
reducing sugar
(+)-lactose
O
O
CH
2
OH
CH2OH
H
H
OH
HO
H
(+)-sucrose
acetal
non-reducing
58

Types of CHO
• Oligosaccharides: group of CHO
consisting of 2-10 sugar groups
• Present in feed ingredients
– Fructooligosaccharides (Inulin): present in
many feedstuffs in variable amounts
– Galactooligosaccharides: present in
soybeans and many feedstuffs
59

Types of CHO
• Oligosaccharides
– Not hydrolytically digested or digested by the action of
mammalian or livestock enzymes
– Fermented by beneficial bacteria present in GIT
– “Functional Feed Ingredient”: foodstuffs which, apart from
their normal nutritional value, are said to help promote or
sustain healthiness
• PREBIOTIC
– non-digestible food ingredients that stimulate the growth
and/or activity of bacteria in the digestive system in ways
claimed to be beneficial to health in simple stomach animals
– a dietary supplement in the form of nondigestible
carbohydrate that favors the growth of desirable microflora in
the large bowel
60

Probiotic
• substance containing beneficial
microorganisms: a substance containing
live microorganisms that claims to be
beneficial to humans and animals, e.g. by
restoring the balance of microflora in the
digestive tract
61

Soybean Oligosaccharides
62

Fructooligosaccharides (Inulin)
63

Types of CHO
• Polysaccharides: many sugar
molecules(>10) linked by a glycosidic bond
– Starch: a natural substance composed of
chains of glucose units, made by plants and
providing a major energy source for animals.
• Formula: (C6H10O5)n
– Cellulose: The main constituent of the cell walls
of plants and algae. most abundant CHO in
nature
– Hemicellulose: One of the principle 64

Polysaccharides
n
65

Polysaccharides
starch
cellulose
Starch 20% amylose (water soluble)
80% amylopectin (water insoluble)
amylose + H2O  (+)-maltose
(+)-maltose + H2O  (+)-glucose
starch is a poly glucose (alpha-glucoside to C-4)
O
O
O
O
O
O
O
O
O
O
O
O
O
O
O
O
66

O
O
O
O
O
O
O
O
O
O
O
O
O
O
O
O
O
O
O
O
O
O
O
O
O
O
O
CH2
O
Amylopectin + H2O  (+)-maltose
(+)-maltose + H2O  (+)-glucose
Also a polyglucose, but branched every 20-25 units:
67

Cellulose is a polyglucose with a beta-linkage:
O
O
O
O
O
O
O
O
O
O
O
O
O
O
O
O
68

Cellular respiration begins with glycolysis
69

ADP
O
Glucose (1 molecule)
CH2OH
OH
OH
OH
4 1
3 2
5
6
ATP
H H
H
H
HO
1
H
ADP
O
Glucose (1 molecule)
CH2OH
OH
OH
OH
4 1
3 2
5
6
Glucose 6-phosphate
O
OH
OH
OH
OH2C
P
ATP
H
HO
H
H
H
H
H
H
H
HO
1
2
H
H
Phosphofructokinase
ADP
O
Glucose (1 molecule)
CH2OH
OH
OH
OH
4 1
3 2
5
6
Glucose 6-phosphate
O
OH
OH
OH
CH2OH
Fructose 6-phosphate
O
OH
H
OH2C 6
5
4 3
2
1
ADP
P
OH2C
P
ATP
ATP
OH
H
HO
H
H
H
H
H H
H
H
HO
H
HO
1
2
3
H
H
Phosphofructokinase
ADP
O
Glucose (1 molecule)
CH2OH
OH
OH
OH
4 1
3 2
5
6
Glucose 6-phosphate
O
OH
OH
OH
CH2OH
Fructose 6-phosphate
O
OH
H
OH2C 6
5
4 3
2
1
CH2O
Fructose 1, 6-bisphosphate
O
OH
H
OH2C
ADP
P
P
P
OH2C
P
ATP
ATP
OH
H
HO
H
H
H
H
H
H
H
H
H
H
HO
HO
H
HO
OH
1
2
3
4
H
H
Phosphofructokinase
Dihydroxyacetone
phosphate
CH2OH
CH2O
C O
Glyceraldehyde
3-phosphate
HCOH
CH2O
O
H
C
ADP
O
Glucose (1 molecule)
CH2OH
OH
OH
OH
4 1
3 2
5
6
Glucose 6-phosphate
O
OH
OH
OH
CH2OH
Fructose 6-phosphate
O
OH
H
OH2C 6
5
4 3
2
1
CH2O
Fructose 1, 6-bisphosphate
O
OH
H
OH2C
ADP
P
P
P
P
P
OH2C
P
ATP
ATP
OH
H
HO
H
H
H
H
H
H
H
H
H
H
HO
HO
H
HO
OH
1
2
3
4
5
H
H
+ 2H+
NADH
HCOH
C
CH2O
O
O 1, 3-Bisphosphoglyceric acid
(2 molecules)
2
P
P
Phosphofructokinase
Dihydroxyacetone
phosphate
CH2OH
CH2O
C O
Glyceraldehyde
3-phosphate
HCOH
CH2O
O
H
C
ADP
O
Glucose (1 molecule)
CH2OH
OH
OH
OH
4 1
3 2
5
6
Glucose 6-phosphate
O
OH
OH
OH
CH2OH
Fructose 6-phosphate
O
OH
H
OH2C 6
5
4 3
2
1
CH2O
Fructose 1, 6-bisphosphate
O
OH
H
OH2C
ADP
P
P
P
P
P
OH2C
P
ATP
ATP
OH
H
HO
H
H
H
H
H
H
H
H
H
H
HO
HO
H
HO
OH
1
2
3
4
5
6
H
H
2 NAD+ + 2 P
+ 2H+
NADH
HCOH
C
CH2O
O
COOH
O
2
2 ADP
HCOH
CH2O
1, 3-Bisphosphoglyceric acid
(2 molecules)
2
3-Phosphoglyceric acid
(2 molecules)
P
P
P
Phosphofructokinase
Dihydroxyacetone
phosphate
CH2OH
CH2O
C O
Glyceraldehyde
3-phosphate
HCOH
CH2O
O
H
C
ADP
O
Glucose (1 molecule)
CH2OH
OH
OH
OH
4 1
3 2
5
6
Glucose 6-phosphate
O
OH
OH
OH
CH2OH
Fructose 6-phosphate
O
OH
H
OH2C 6
5
4 3
2
1
CH2O
Fructose 1, 6-bisphosphate
O
OH
H
OH2C
ADP
P
P
P
P
P
OH2C
P
ATP
ATP
ATP
OH
H
HO
H
H
H
H
H
H
H
H
H
H
HO
HO
H
HO
OH
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
H
H
2 NAD+ + 2 P
+ 2H+
NADH
HCOH
C
CH2O
O
COOH
O
2
2 ADP
HCOH
CH2O
1, 3-Bisphosphoglyceric acid
(2 molecules)
2
3-Phosphoglyceric acid
(2 molecules)
COOH
CH2OH
HCO 2-Phosphoglyceric acid
(2 molecules)
P
P
P
P
Phosphofructokinase
Dihydroxyacetone
phosphate
CH2OH
CH2O
C O
Glyceraldehyde
3-phosphate
HCOH
CH2O
O
H
C
ADP
O
Glucose (1 molecule)
CH2OH
OH
OH
OH
4 1
3 2
5
6
Glucose 6-phosphate
O
OH
OH
OH
CH2OH
Fructose 6-phosphate
O
OH
H
OH2C 6
5
4 3
2
1
CH2O
Fructose 1, 6-bisphosphate
O
OH
H
OH2C
ADP
P
P
P
P
P
OH2C
P
ATP
ATP
ATP
OH
H
HO
H
H
H
H
H
H
H
H
H
H
HO
HO
H
HO
OH
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
H
H
2 NAD+ + 2 P
+ 2H+
NADH
HCOH
C
CH2O
O
COOH
O
2
2 ADP
HCOH
CH2O
1, 3-Bisphosphoglyceric acid
(2 molecules)
2
3-Phosphoglyceric acid
(2 molecules)
COOH
CH2OH
HCO 2-Phosphoglyceric acid
(2 molecules)
COOH
CH2
C O Phosphoenolpyruvic acid
(2 molecules)
P
P
P
P
P
Phosphofructokinase
Dihydroxyacetone
phosphate
CH2OH
CH2O
C O
Glyceraldehyde
3-phosphate
HCOH
CH2O
O
H
C
ADP
O
Glucose (1 molecule)
CH2OH
OH
OH
OH
4 1
3 2
5
6
Glucose 6-phosphate
O
OH
OH
OH
CH2OH
Fructose 6-phosphate
O
OH
H
OH2C 6
5
4 3
2
1
CH2O
Fructose 1, 6-bisphosphate
O
OH
H
OH2C
ADP
P
P
P
P
P
OH2C
P
ATP
ATP
ATP
OH
H
HO
H
H
H
H
H
H
H
H
H
H
HO
HO
H
HO
OH
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
H
H
2 NAD+ + 2 P
+ 2H+
NADH
2 NAD+ + 2
HCOH
C
CH2O
O
COOH
O
2
2 ADP
P
HCOH
CH2O
1, 3-Bisphosphoglyceric acid
(2 molecules)
2
3-Phosphoglyceric acid
(2 molecules)
COOH
CH2OH
HCO 2-Phosphoglyceric acid
(2 molecules)
Pyruvic acid
(2 molecules)
COOH
CH2
2
2 ADP
C O Phosphoenolpyruvic acid
(2 molecules)
COOH
CH3
C O
P
P
P
P
P
Phosphofructokinase
Dihydroxyacetone
phosphate
CH2OH
CH2O
C O
Glyceraldehyde
3-phosphate
HCOH
CH2O
O
H
C
ADP
O
Glucose (1 molecule)
CH2OH
OH
OH
OH
4 1
3 2
5
6
Glucose 6-phosphate
O
OH
OH
OH
CH2OH
Fructose 6-phosphate
O
OH
H
OH2C 6
5
4 3
2
1
CH2O
Fructose 1, 6-bisphosphate
O
OH
H
OH2C
ADP
P
P
P
P
P
OH2C
P
ATP
ATP
ATP
ATP
OH
H
HO
H
H
H
H
H
H
H
H
H
H
HO
HO
H
HO
OH
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
H
H
70

Function of CHO
• Source of energy
• Source of heat
• Building block for other nutrients
71

Sources of CHO
• Cereal Grains
– Most feedstuffs of plant origin are high in
CHO content
72

CHO Digestion
• Dietary CHO must be converted to be absorbed
– Simple sugars (monosaccharides)
• How?
– Action of amylase enzyme
• Salivary amylase (swine, poultry)
• Intestinal amylase
– Action of other disaccharidases
• Produced by mucosal lining of duodenum
73

CHO Digestion
• Mammals do not produce enzymes
necessary to digest oligosaccharides and
celluloses (fibrous feedstuffs)
– Digestion occurs as result of bacterial
fermentation
• Where?
– Rumen
– Large Intestine (caecum and colon)
74

CHO Digestion
• Fermentation yields:
– CO2
– H2O
– CH4
– Heat (heat increment)
– Volatile Fatty Acids (VFA) or also referred
to as Short Chain Fatty Acids (SCFA)
• 2 to 6 carbons
75

VFA Production
• Serve as 70 - 80% of energy
requirement in ruminants
– VFA’s produced in rumen
• Serve as ~16% of Maintenance energy
requirement in swine
– VFA’s produced in large intestine
They are:
1. Acetate/acetic acid (2 carbons)
2. Propionate/propionic acid (3 carbons)
3. Butyrate/butyric acid (4 carbons) 76

VFAs
• Acetate
–  with higher roughage levels
– Produced by cellulolytic & hemicellulolytic
bacteria
C
H
H
H
C
OH
O
77

VFAs
• Propionate
–  with higher concentrate levels
–  Feed efficiency
– Ionophores increase propionate
production
C
H
H
H
C
O
C
H
H
OH
78

VFAs
• Butyrate
– Energy source for rumen wall growth
• Papillae growth
– Energy source for colonic cell growth
• monogastrics
C
H
H
H
C
O
C
H
H
C
H
H OH
79

VFAs
• Lactate (not volatile)
– Anaerobic conditions
–  rumen and blood pH
– Inhibits most microbial growth
– Acidosis situation
80

CHO Absorption
• Once simple sugars are formed, they are
absorbed rapidly by small intestine
• Then monosaccharides diffuse into the
portal vein which transports them to sites
of metabolism
81

VFA Absorption
• Absorbed through the rumen wall or large
intestine mucosa
• Provide energy source to the animal
82

Absorption of VFA
70% of VFA absorbed from rumen-reticulum
60 to 70% of remainder absorbed from omasum
Papillae are important – provide surface area
Absorption from rumen is by passive diffusion
Concentration in portal vein less than rumen
VFA concentrations
Rumen 50 - 150 mM
Portal blood 1 - 2 mM
Peripheral blood 0.5 - 1 mM
Absorption increases at lower pH
H+ + Ac- HAc
Undissociated acids diffuse more readily
At pH 5.7 to 6.7 both forms are present, however most is dissociated
At higher pH, 1 equiv of HCO3 enters the rumen with absorption of
2 equiv of VFA
83

VFA Absorption
Absorption of Ac-
Ac- Ac- Portal
HAc blood
H+ Metabolism
HCO3
-
H2O H2CO3
+
CO2 CO2 Carbonic
Metabolism anhydrase
HAc HAc
Rumen
84

VFA Absorption
Rate of absorption:
Butyrate > Propionate > Acetate
Absorption greater with increasing concentrations
of acids in the rumen
Absorption increases at lower rumen pH
Absorption greater in grain fed animals
Faster fermentation – More VFA produced
Lower pH
Growth of papillae
85

Metabolism of VFA by GIT
Half or more of butyrate converted to
- hydroxybutyric acid in rumen epithelium.
5% of propionate converted to lactic acid by
rumen epithelium.
Some acetate is used as energy by tissues of gut.
VFA and metabolites carried by portal vein to liver.
86

Tissue Metabolism
VFA
VFA GIT tissues Liver
Body tissues
Use of VFA
Energy
Carbon for synthesis
Long-chain fatty acids
Glucose
Amino acids
Other
87

Utilization of Acetate in Metabolism
1. Acetate (As energy) Energy
Acetate Acetyl CoA Krebs cycle 2 CO2
2 carbons (10 ATP/mole)
2. Acetate (Carbon for synthesis of fatty acids – in adipose)
Acetate Acetyl CoA Fatty acids Lipids
H
+NADPH NADP
+
Glycerol
Pentose PO4 CO2
shunt Glucose
88

Utilization of Butryate in Metabolism
Butyrate (As energy)
Butyrate Butyrl CoA B-hydroxybutyrate Acetyl CoA
Krebs
cycle 2 CO2
Energy
(27 ATP/mole)
Some butyrate also used as a primer for short-chain fatty acids
89

Utilization of Propionate in Metabolism
Propionate
Propionate Propionyl CoA Methylmalonyl CoA
CO2 Succinyl CoA
Vit B12
Glucose Krebs
cycle 2 CO2
Energy
(18 ATP/mole)
90

Utilization of VFA in Metabolism
Summary
Acetate
Energy
Carbon source for fatty acids
Adipose
Mammary gland
Not used for net synthesis of glucose
Propionate
Energy
Precursor of glucose
Butyrate
Energy
Carbon source for fatty acids - mammary
91

Effect of VFA on Endocrine System
Propionate
Increases blood glucose
Stimulates release of insulin
Butryate
Not used for synthesis of glucose
Stimulates release of insulin
Stimulates release of glucagon
Increases blood glucose
Acetate
Not used for synthesis of glucose
Does not stimulate release of insulin
Glucose
Stimulates release of insulin
92

Energetic Efficiency of VFA in
Metabolism
ATP/mole Energy in ATP % Heat of
(kcal/mole) combustion
Acetate 10 76.0 36.3
Propionate 18 136.8 37.2
Butyrate 27 205.2 39.1
Glucose 38 288.8 42.9
93

Energetic Efficiency of VFA
Fermentation and Metabolism
Cellulose
10 Glucose VFA ATP
(6730 kcal) (5240 kcal (1946 kcal)
60A 28.9%
Starch 30P
10B
Absorbed as glucose ATP
(6730 kcal) (2888 kcal)
42.9%
94

Lower Energy Value of
Roughage Compared with concentrate
- Less digested
- Lignin limits digestibility of digestible fiber
- Greater energy lost from fermentation
CO2, N2O,CH4, Heat
- Increased rumination
Rumen contractions
Chewing
-More bulk in digestive tract
-Lower passage rate
95

Requirements for Glucose
Ruminants
1. Nervous system
Energy and source of carbon
2. Fat synthesis
NADPH
Glycerol
3.Pregnancy
Fetal energy requirement
4. Lactation
Milk sugar - lactose
96

Sources of Glucose Carbon
Ruminants
Ruminants dependent on gluconeogenesis (glucose
synthesis) for major portion of glucose
Sources of glucose in metabolism
1. Propionate
2. Amino acids
3. Lactic acid
4. Glycerol
5. Carbohydrate digestion in intestine
Absorption of glucose from intestine
97

Glucose Synthesis
Acetate Amino acids
Ketone Acetyl CoA
Bodies
Fatty
Butyrate acids
Citrate
Glycerol
Acetyl CoA
Lactate CO2 2 CO2
Pyruvate Oxaloacetate
PEP
Glucose Succinate
Proteins Amino acids
Propionate
98

Consequences of Inadequate Glucose in
Metabolism
1. Low blood glucose
2. High blood ketones
3. High blood concentrations of long-chain fatty acids
(NEFA)
Metabolic disorders
• Causes fatty liver
• ketosis in lactating cows and
• pregnancy toxemia in pregnant ewes
99

Pregnancy Toxemia
Pregnant Ewes
• During the last month of pregnancy
• Ewes with multiple faetuses
• Inadequate nutrition of ewe
• High demands for glucose by faetuses
• Low blood glucose and insulin
• Mobilization of body fat
• Increase in nonesterified fatty acids (NEFA) in blood
• Increased ketone production by liver
100

Fatty Acid Metabolism
Relation to Glucose
Diet fat Adipose Diet CHOH
CO2 Acetate
Malonyl CoA
LCFA NEFA Acetate
CO2
Glycerol LCFA acyl CoA
2 CO2
Triglycerides
Carnitine
FA acyl carnitine
Malonyl CoA
inhibits CO2 (Mitochondria)
Ketones
101

Low Blood Glucose and Insulin
• Increased release of nonesterified fatty acids
from adipose.
• Less synthesis of fatty acids
Reduced malonyl CoA
• Reduced sensitivity of carnitine palmitoyl-
transferase-1 to malonyl CoA
Increased transfer of fatty acids into
mitochondria for oxidation
• Increased ketone production
102

Fatty Acid Oxidation
FA acyl CoA
Acetyl CoA
CO2
Acetoacetyl CoA
Acetoacetate
(Mitochondria)
3-OH butyrate
FA acyl carnitine
Carnitine
CoA
103

Low Milk Fat
Cows fed high concentrate diets:
Reduced milk fat percentage
Early theory
Low rumen pH
Shift from acetate to propionate production
Increased blood insulin
Decrease in blood growth hormone
More recent theory
Increased production of trans fatty acids in
the rumen
Trans fatty acids reduce milk fat synthesis
104

Long-Chain Fatty Acid Synthesis
Ruminants
Synthesis is primarily in adipose or mammary gland
– Limited synthesis in the liver
Ruminants conserve glucose supply
– Glucose not extensively used for long chain
fatty acid synthesis
Most of carbon is supplied by acetate
Some butyrate used in mammary gland
Glucose metabolism supplies some of NADPH
needed for fatty acid synthesis 105

Long-Chain Fatty Acid Synthesis
Lactic acid, Propionate, Amino acids
GlucoseRuminants
limit use of glucose
Acetyl-CoA carboxylase
Acetyl CoA Fatty acids Triglycerides
NADPH NADP
Acetate Glycerol-3-P
Glu-6-P dehydrogenase Gly-3-P dehydrogenase
Glucose
106

Long-Chain Fatty Acid Synthesis
Glucose
NADPH NADP
Pyruvate Malate Fatty acids
Malate dehydrogenase NADP
Pyruvate Oxaloacetate
NADPH
Acetyl CoA Acetyl CoA
Oxaloacetate Citrate lyase
Citrate Citrate Acetate
Mitocondria Cytosol
107

Long-Chain Fatty Acid Synthesis
Citrate Citrate
Isocitrate
NADP Isocitrate
NADPH dehydrogenase
a-Ketoglutarate
Mitochondria Cytosol
Supplies about half of NADPH for fatty acid synthesis
108

Long-Chain Fatty Acid Synthesis
Butyrate
• Can be used in mammary gland as primer for
synthesis of fatty acids
• Shorter chain acids
Methylmalonyl (propionate)
• Is used as primer for synthesis of fatty acids
in sheep fed high-concentrate diets
• Branched-chain acids
109

LIPIDS
What are lipids?
110

Lipids
Lipids (fats & oils)
 Most livestock feeds contain 1-5% fat or oil
• Insoluble in water but soluble in organic solvents
• Dense energy source:
– 1 g fat = 9.45 kcal GE
– 1 g protein = 3.5 kcal GE
– 1 g CHO = 4.2 kcal GE
• Thus, fat produces 2.25 times the energy than CHO
111

Lipids
1. Triglyceride: primary storage form of lipids
2. Saturated fatty acids: contain no double
bonds
3. Unsaturated fatty acids: contain 1 or more
double bonds
112

Lipids
113

Lipids
• Fats = solid at room temp = animal origin
– saturated
• Oils = liquid at room temp = plant origin +
fish
– unsaturated
114

Functions of Lipids
• Dietary energy supply
• Source of insulation & protection
• Source of essential fatty acids (EFA)
• Carrier for fat soluble vitamins
115

Lipids
• Essential fatty acids (EFA): Those fatty acids that an
animal requires, but which it cannot be synthesized in
adequate amounts to meet the animal’s need
– Linoleic C18:2
– Linolenic C18:3
– Arachidonic C20:4
116

Oleic Acid (OA): C18:1, n-9 or -9
Good source: Olive oil, Peanut oil, Soy oil
Linoleic Acid (LA): C18:2, n-6 or -6.
Essential Fatty Acid
Alpha Linolenic Acid (ALA): C18:3, n-3 or -3.
Essential Fatty Acid
117

Eicosapentaenoic Acid (EPA): C20:5, n-3 or -3. Essential Fatty Acid. Good
source: Fish oil
Docosahexaenoic Acid (DHA): C22:6, n-3 or -3. Essential
Fatty Acid. Good Source: Fish oil
Arachidonic Acid (AA): C20:4, n-6 or -6. Good source:
Liver, Beef. 118

EFA
• Physiological needs:
– Cell membrane structure
– Synthesis of prostaglandins which
control blood pressure and smooth
muscle contractions
• Deficiency:
– Scaly, flaky skin (Poor feather growth)
– Poor growth
119

Plasma Membrane
120

Sources of Lipids (EFA)
• Most feeds contain low levels
– > 10%
• Unprocessed oil seeds (soybean, cottonseed,
sunflower seed) contain up to 20% fat
• Forages and Fodders are not good sources
• Traditionally, if additional fat is needed it is added
to the diet
– Animal fats
– Vegetable oils
121

Lipid Digestion
• Occurs in the small intestine (duodenum)
• Bile produced by liver emulsifies fat
• Pancreatic lipase (enzyme) breaks apart
fat for absorption
• Monoglycerides (MG)—absorbed into SI
mucosal cells
• Free Fatty Acids (FFA)—absorbed into SI
mucosal cells or enter blood circulation
directly 122

Lipid Absorption
• Very efficient
– Absorption rates range from 70-96%
• Generally, oils (unsaturated fats) are
absorbed more completely than fats
(saturated fats)
123

Ketosis
• Disorder of metabolism
– Insufficient energy intake in high producing
animals (e.g. Dairy cattle in early lactation and
sheep in late pregnancy)
– Results in catabolism (breakdown) of body
energy (fat) reserves
124

Ketosis
• 2 C fragments (ketones) of fat catabolism
(breakdown) build up
• Toxic levels cause
– Body weight loss
– Abortion
– Poor milk production
125

Ideal = no limitation to burn fat in the CAC
126

Worse = deviate fat to ketone synthesis
- low energetic
efficiency/hypoglacemia
- “drunk cow” 127

Worst = fatty liver disease
128

AMINO ACIDS GLUCOSE TRIGLYCERIDES
(in chylomicrons)
Blood
GLUCOSE
GASTROINTESTINAL
TRACT
+ H2O +
CO2
MOST TISSUES
Oxidation
ATP
1
AMINO ACIDS GLUCOSE TRIGLYCERIDES
(in chylomicrons)
Blood
GLUCOSE
GASTROINTESTINAL
TRACT
HEPATOCYTES IN LIVER
+ H2O +
CO2
MOST TISSUES
Oxidation
ATP
Fatty acids
Triglycerides
Glyceraldehyde
3-phosphate Glycogen
Glucose
+ H2O +
CO2 ATP
1
2
AMINO ACIDS GLUCOSE TRIGLYCERIDES
(in chylomicrons)
Blood
GLUCOSE
GASTROINTESTINAL
TRACT
HEPATOCYTES IN LIVER
+ H2O +
CO2
MOST TISSUES
Oxidation
ATP
Triglycerides
ADIPOSE TISSUE
VLDLs
Triglycerides
Fatty acids
Triglycerides
Glyceraldehyde
3-phosphate Glycogen
Glucose
+ H2O +
CO2 ATP
1
2
3
AMINO ACIDS GLUCOSE TRIGLYCERIDES
(in chylomicrons)
Blood
GLUCOSE
GASTROINTESTINAL
TRACT
GLUCOSE
HEPATOCYTES IN LIVER
SKELETAL
MUSCLE
Storage
+ H2O +
CO2
MOST TISSUES
Oxidation
ATP
Triglycerides
ADIPOSE TISSUE
VLDLs
Fatty
acids
Triglycerides
Glyceraldehyde
3-phosphate
Glucose
Fatty acids
Triglycerides
Glyceraldehyde
3-phosphate Glycogen
Glucose
Glycogen
Glycogen
+ H2O +
CO2 ATP
1
2
3
4
4
AMINO ACIDS GLUCOSE TRIGLYCERIDES
(in chylomicrons)
Blood
GLUCOSE
GASTROINTESTINAL
TRACT
GLUCOSE
HEPATOCYTES IN LIVER
SKELETAL
MUSCLE
Storage
+ H2O +
CO2
MOST TISSUES
Oxidation
ATP
Triglycerides
ADIPOSE TISSUE
VLDLs
Triglycerides
Fatty
acids
Triglycerides
Glyceraldehyde
3-phosphate
Glucose
Fatty acids
Triglycerides
Glyceraldehyde
3-phosphate Glycogen
Glucose
Glycogen
Glycogen
+ H2O +
CO2 ATP
1
2
3
4 5
4
AMINO ACIDS GLUCOSE TRIGLYCERIDES
(in chylomicrons)
Blood
GLUCOSE
GASTROINTESTINAL
TRACT
GLUCOSE
HEPATOCYTES IN LIVER
SKELETAL
MUSCLE
Storage
+ H2O +
CO2
MOST TISSUES
Oxidation
ATP
Triglycerides
ADIPOSE TISSUE
VLDLs
Triglycerides
Fatty
acids
Triglycerides
Glyceraldehyde
3-phosphate
Glucose
Keto acids
Fatty acids
Triglycerides
Glyceraldehyde
3-phosphate Glycogen
Glucose
Glycogen
Glycogen
+ H2O +
CO2 ATP
1
2
3
4 5
6
4
AMINO ACIDS GLUCOSE TRIGLYCERIDES
(in chylomicrons)
Blood
GLUCOSE
GASTROINTESTINAL
TRACT
GLUCOSE
HEPATOCYTES IN LIVER
SKELETAL
MUSCLE
Storage
+ H2O +
CO2
MOST TISSUES
Oxidation
ATP
Triglycerides
ADIPOSE TISSUE
VLDLs
Triglycerides
Fatty
acids
Triglycerides
Glyceraldehyde
3-phosphate
Glucose
Keto acids
Fatty acids
Proteins
Triglycerides
Glyceraldehyde
3-phosphate Glycogen
Glucose
Glycogen
Glycogen
+ H2O +
CO2 ATP
1
2
3
4 5
6
7
4
AMINO ACIDS GLUCOSE TRIGLYCERIDES
(in chylomicrons)
Blood
GLUCOSE
GASTROINTESTINAL
TRACT
GLUCOSE
HEPATOCYTES IN LIVER
SKELETAL
MUSCLE
Storage
+ H2O +
CO2
MOST TISSUES
Oxidation
ATP
Triglycerides
ADIPOSE TISSUE
VLDLs
Triglycerides
Fatty
acids
Triglycerides
Glyceraldehyde
3-phosphate
Glucose
Keto acids
Fatty acids
Proteins
Triglycerides
Glyceraldehyde
3-phosphate Glycogen
Glucose
Glycogen
Glycogen
Proteins
Proteins
+ H2O +
CO2 ATP
1
2
3
4 5
6
7
8
4
129

1
Liver glycogen
Glucose
LIVER
Blood
HEART
ADIPOSE TISSUE
SKELETAL MUSCLE TISSUE
OTHER TISSUES
1
Liver glycogen
Glucose
LIVER
Glycerol
Blood
HEART
Fatty acids
Glycerol
Triglycerides
ADIPOSE TISSUE
SKELETAL MUSCLE TISSUE
OTHER TISSUES
2
Fatty acids
1
Liver glycogen
Glucose
LIVER
Lactic acid
Glycerol
Blood
HEART
Fatty acids
Glycerol
Triglycerides
ADIPOSE TISSUE
SKELETAL MUSCLE TISSUE
OTHER TISSUES
3
2
Fatty acids
1
Liver glycogen
Keto acids
Glucose
Amino acids
LIVER
Lactic acid
Glycerol
Blood
HEART
Muscle proteins
Fatty acids
Glycerol
Triglycerides
ADIPOSE TISSUE
Fasting or
starvation
SKELETAL MUSCLE TISSUE
OTHER TISSUES
Proteins
Amino acids
Amino acids
4
4
3
4
2
Fatty acids
1
Liver glycogen
Keto acids
Glucose
Amino acids
LIVER
Lactic acid
Glycerol
Blood
HEART
Fatty acids
Muscle proteins
Fatty acids
Glycerol
Triglycerides
ADIPOSE TISSUE
Fasting or
starvation
SKELETAL MUSCLE TISSUE
OTHER TISSUES
Fatty acids
Proteins
Amino acids
Amino acids
Fatty acids
ATP
ATP
ATP
4
5
5
4
3
5
4
2
Fatty acids
1
Liver glycogen
Keto acids
Glucose
Amino acids
LIVER
Lactic acid
Glycerol
Blood
HEART
Fatty acids
Muscle proteins
Fatty acids
Glycerol
Triglycerides
ADIPOSE TISSUE
Fasting or
starvation
SKELETAL MUSCLE TISSUE
OTHER TISSUES
Fatty acids
Proteins
Amino acids
Amino acids
Fatty acids
Lactic acid
ATP
ATP
ATP
ATP
4
5
5
6
4
3
5
4
2
Fatty acids
1
Liver glycogen
Keto acids
Glucose
Amino acids
LIVER
Lactic acid
Glycerol
Blood
HEART
Fatty acids
Muscle proteins
Fatty acids
Glycerol
Triglycerides
ADIPOSE TISSUE
Fasting or
starvation
SKELETAL MUSCLE TISSUE
OTHER TISSUES
Fatty acids
Proteins
Amino acids
Amino acids
Fatty acids
Lactic acid
ATP
ATP
ATP
ATP
ATP
4
5
5
6
7
4
3
5
4
2
Fatty acids
1
Liver glycogen
Keto acids
Glucose
Amino acids
LIVER
Fatty acids
Lactic acid
Ketone bodies
Glycerol
Blood
NERVOUS
TISSUE Ketone
bodies
Glucose
Starvation
HEART
Fatty acids
Muscle proteins
Fatty acids
Glycerol
Triglycerides
ADIPOSE TISSUE
Fasting or
starvation
SKELETAL MUSCLE TISSUE
Ketone bodies
OTHER TISSUES
Fatty acids
Proteins
Amino acids
Amino acids
Fatty acids
Ketone bodies
Lactic acid
ATP
ATP
ATP
ATP
ATP
ATP
ATP
ATP
ATP ATP
4
5
8
5
6
8
8
7
4
3
5
4
2
8
1
Liver glycogen
Keto acids
Glucose
Amino acids
LIVER
Fatty acids
Lactic acid
Ketone bodies
Glycerol
Blood
NERVOUS
TISSUE Ketone
bodies
Glucose
Starvation
HEART
Fatty acids
Muscle proteins
Fatty acids
Glycerol
Triglycerides
ADIPOSE TISSUE
Fasting or
starvation
SKELETAL MUSCLE TISSUE
Ketone bodies
OTHER TISSUES
Fatty acids
Proteins
Amino acids
Glucose
6-phosphate
Pyruvic acid
Lactic
acid
Muscle glycogen
(aerobic) (anaerobic)
Amino acids
Fatty acids
Ketone bodies
Lactic acid
ATP
O2
ATP
ATP
ATP
ATP
ATP
ATP
ATP
ATP
ATP
ATP ATP
+ O2
–
4
5
8
5
6
8
8
7
4
3
9
5
4
2
8
130

PROTEINS
What are proteins
131

Proteins
• Principal constituent of organs and soft
tissues
• Highest concentration of any nutrient,
except water, in the body of all living
organisms and animals
• Required for life
132

Nutrients
Function of Proteins
• supply amino acids for body proteins
- muscle; bone; connective tissue; hormones;
enzymes; antibodies; milk components; cell repair
133

Proteins
• DEFINITION: Proteins are long chains of
amino acids (AA)
– Formed by peptide linkages
• Amino group + carbon skeleton
134

Proteins
Amino Acid (AA) Protein (2 AA joined by peptide
bond between  carboxyl
and  amino group
135

Proteins
• Dietary requirements highest in young,
growing animals and declines at maturity
• Large molecules that vary greatly in size,
shape, and function
– MW = 5000 to millions
136

Categories of Protein
1. Essential Amino Acids (EAA):
– required in the diet
– cannot be synthesized at a rate sufficient to
meet the nutritional requirements
137

Essential AA
• PVT TIM HALL (KNOW!)
• Phenylalanine
• Valine
• Threonine
• Tryptophan
• Isoleucine
• Methionine
• Histidine
• Arginine
• Lysine
• Leucine
138

Categories of Protein
2. Nonessential AA
– animal can produce enough to meet it’s
requirements
3. Semi-essential AA
– Animal can not always produce enough to
meet its requirements
139

Functions of Protein
• Basic structural units of animal body
– Collagen, blood, elastin
• Body metabolism
– Enzymes, hormones, immune system,
hereditary transmission
• Production
– Meat, milk, egg, skin/hair
140

Protein Deficiency
• Reduced growth & feed efficiency
• Infertility
• Reduced birth weights
• Reduced production,and reproduction
141

Sources of Protein
• Most common feedstuffs contain some
protein (the quality is another issue)
– Animal origin diets are the richest sources
– Plant origin diets are also good sources of
proteins
• KEY: to combine feedstuffs into the diet
so that AA requirements are met
– e.g. Using a corn-soybean meal diet for pigs
142

Protein Digestion
• Proteins must be broken down into AA for
absorption in the GIT
– Exception! Early in life (> 48 h after birth)
proteins from milk (immunoglobulins) can be
absorbed intact across the intestinal
epithelium
143

Protein Digestion/Absorption
in Monogastrics
144

Monogastric Protein Digestion
• Stomach: HCl unfolds (denatures) proteins
and activates pepsinogen secreted by
stomach to pepsin
– Pepsin begins protein digestion to peptides
(short-chain proteins)
• Small intestine: enzymes (trypsin) break
peptides into AA
145

Monogastric Protein
Absorption
• AA are absorbed in anterior part of the
small intestine
– Jejunum and ileum
• AA are absorbed and transported to tissue
via blood
146

Protein Digestion and
Absorption in Ruminants
147

Ruminant Protein Digestion
• In rumen, microbes break down protein to
peptides and AA and then degraded
further to ammonia, VFAs, and carbon
dioxide
• Ammonia and/or NPN (urea) + CHO
source form microbial proteins
148

Ruminant Protein Absorption
• Protein can be absorbed through rumen
wall as ammonia
• Microbial proteins pass to the lower
intestine where they are converted to AA
and absorbed
149

RUMEN
BLOOD STREAM
URINE
SALIVA
ABOMASUM &
SMALL INT.
LIVER TISSUES
FECES
N metabolism in ruminants
FEED
protein
NPN
protein
protein
feed
protein
NPN
microbial protein
peptides
amino acids
NH3 NH3
NH3
urea
urea urea
protein
amino acids
amino acids
endogen.
nitrogen
metabolic
fecal
protein
150

Fates of Absorbed AA
1. Tissue protein synthesis
2. Synthesis of enzymes, hormones & other
metabolites
3. Use for energy (inefficient energy source)
151

Various points at which amino acids enter the
Krebs cycle for oxidation
152

MINERALS
What are minerals?
153

Minerals
• Inorganic components of the diet
– inorganic elements (contain no carbon), component left
after ashing
• Can not be synthesized or decomposed by
chemical reactions
• Total mineral content is called “ash”
• Makes up 3-5% of the body weight
154

1ppm =
1/1000000
So one
parts-per
million is
equal to
0.0001
percent:
1ppm =
1/1000000
155

Categories of Minerals
• Macro Minerals: Minerals normally present at
greater levels in animal body or needed in large
amounts in the diet (found in concentrations >
100 ppm)
– Calcium (Ca)
– Phosphorus (P)
– Sodium (Na)
– Chloride (Cl)
– Magnesium (Mg)
– Potassium (K)
– Sulfur (S)
+ C O N
156

Categories of Minerals
• Micro (Trace) Minerals: Minerals normally present at low
levels in animal body or needed in small amounts in the
diet (found in concentrations < 100 ppm)
– Cobalt (Co)
– Copper (Cu)
– Fluoride (Fl)
– Iodine (I)
– Iron (Fe)
– Manganese (Mn)
– Molybdenum (Mo)
– Selenium (Se)
– Zinc (Zn)
157

General Mineral Functions
• Skeletal formation and maintenance (Ca, P, Mg,
Cu, Mn)
• Protein synthesis (P, S, Zn)
• Oxygen transport (Fe, Cu)
• Fluid balance—osmotic pressure (Na, Cl, K)
• Acid-base balance regulation (Na, Cl, K)
• Activators or components of enzyme systems
(Ca, P, K, Mg, Fe, Cu, Mn, Zn)
• Mineral-Vitamin relationships (Ca, P, Co, Se)
158

Macro Mineral Deficiencies
• Ca and P
– Inadequate bone mineralization
• Rickets (young)
• Osteomalacia (adult)
– Phytate P—bound and unavailable to nonruminants
• Mg
– Grass tetany-convulsions, coma, death
• Likely in grazing, lactating females in early spring
or fall
• Mg is there in the plant, just in bound form due to
lack of sunlight
159

Macro Mineral Deficiencies
• Fe
– Anemia (insufficient haemoglobin)
– Young pigs (rapid growth, low stores, low Fe
in milk)
160

Trace Mineral Deficiencies
• Mn
– Poor growth
– Poultry—Perosis—deformed and enlarged
hock joints
• I
– Goiter—swollen thyroid
161

Trace Mineral Deficiencies
• Cu
– Fading hair coat color (depigmentation)
– Low Cu utilization may result when excess Mo or Zn
• Zn
– Parakeratosis (dermatitis-thickening of skin)
– Poor hair or feather development
– Exacerbated by high Ca
162

Trace Mineral Deficiencies
• Se
– White muscle disease-nutritional muscular
dystrophy
• Muscle appears white due to Ca-P deposits
– Due to low concentration of Se in soil
163

Mineral Toxicities
• Usually not a problem
• NaCl can be for swine and poultry
– Levels above 8%--causes nervous disorders
• Cu a big problem for sheep and young animals
– Mineral mixes for other species/age groups used
• Se has a small margin between requirement (0.3
ppm) & toxicity (8 ppm)
– Plants grown in regions of high soil Se
164

Sources of Minerals
• Forages usually considered good sources
of minerals
– Largely dependant on soil conditions
• Grains are fair source of P, but low in
other minerals
• Mineral premixes
• Mineral blocks
165

Mineral Absorption
• Minerals are converted to their ionic form
and absorbed in the small intestine
166

Mineral Functions
• Part of some amino acids & vitamins
• metabolic reactions
• enzyme function
• body structure
• transport oxygen
Deficiency examples
White muscle
=selenium
Grass Tetany
=magnesium
Rickets
=calcium
White hair on black cattle
=copper
Anemia
=iron
Retained Placenta
=selenium and Vitamin E
167

Vitamins
• What are vitamins?
• What are their roles in animal production?
168

small amounts for specific body
functions
a. 2 classifications
1. water soluble – C & B-
complex (see Fig 5-1)
– microbes synthesize in
ruminants & horses
2. fat soluble – A, D, E, K
– A & E required in
diets of all animals
– D – produced by
effects of sun on skin
– K – synthesis by
rumen/cecum
microbes
169

Types of Vitamins
• Fat-soluble vitamins
– Vit A (carotene): vision
– Vit D: Ca, P absorption
– Vit E (tocopherol): antioxidant
– Vit K (menadione): blood clotting
• Short shelf life (3-4 months)
• Need lipids for absorption
• Destroyed by heat, minerals
170

Types of Vitamins
• Water-soluble vitamins
– Thiamine
– Riboflavin
– Niacin
– Pyridoxine
– Pantothenic acid
– Biotin
– Choline
– Folic acid
– Vitamin B12
– Vitamin C
B Complex Vitamins
171

Vitamin Functions
• Reproduction
• Fetal Development
• Colostrum Production
• Milk production
• Wool
• Egg
• Racing
172

Vitamin Deficiencies
• Vitamin A
– Xerophtalmia: night blindness
– Poor growth, reproductive failure
• Vitamin D
– Rickets
– Osteomalacia
• Vitamin K
– Poor blood clotting/hemorrhaging
173

Vitamin Deficiencies
• Vitamin C
– Scurvy: slow wound healing, spongy gums,
swollen joints, anemia
• B Complex Vitamins
– Reduced growth/poor appetite
– Dermatitis
– Muscular incoordination
174

Most likely deficient…
• In practical situations:
– Ruminants: A, E, D (limited circumstances)
– Swine: riboflavin, niacin, pantothenic acid,
choline, B12, A, D, and sometimes E
– Poultry: All vitamins except Vitamin C, inositol
175

Vitamin Toxicity
• Unlikely ($)
• Generally nontoxic
– Exceptions:
• A, D, Niacin, Pyridoxine, Choline
176

Sources of Vitamins
• A: green, leafy forages, corn, fish oil
• D: fish oils, sun-cured hay
• E: seed germ oils, green forage or hay
• K: green forage, fish meal, synthetic menadione
177

Sources of Vitamins
• B Vitamins: green forages usually
– Niacin: present in grains, but unavailable to
nonruminants
• B12: protein feeds of animal origin, fermentation
products
• C: citrus fruits, green, leafy forages, well-cured
hay
178

Sources of Vitamins
• Most nonruminants rations contain a
vitamin premix
– Consume basically no forages and B vitamins
are poorly available from cereal grains
179

Vitamin Absorption
• Most vitamins are absorbed in the upper
portion of the small intestine
• Water soluble vitamins are rapidly
absorbed
• Fat soluble vitamin absorption relies on fat
absorption mechanisms
180

Vitamins
• Organic substances required by the animal in
very small amounts
• Necessary for metabolic activity but not part of
body structure
• Content varies greatly in the feed
• Requirements depend on species
– Monogastrics = a lot b/c cannot synthesize
– Ruminants = few vitamins due to microbial synthesis
181

Chapter 5
Formulation of Feeds
182

Formulation of Feeds
 Feed formulation: the preparation of
nutritionally-complete diets for feeding animals
 Least-cost feed formulation:
 a feed formula that is both nutritionally-complete and,
 with a minimum ingredient cost
 Now-a-days is developed and completed
through the use of computers using linear-
programming software
 Manual feed formulations (pearson square,
algebiric, trial error)
-Nutrient composition (proximate + detergent fiber)
basic for formulation of feeds 183

Least-cost Formulation
• Least-cost feed formulations require that the
following information be provided:
 cost of feed ingredients
 nutrient content of feed ingredients
 nutrient requirement of the animal
 availability of the nutrient to the animal
 minimum-maximum restrictions on levels
184

Least-cost Formulations
 Costs of feed ingredients and nutrient content are fairly
available for most commercial feedstuffs
 costs can be evaluated on a daily basis
 nutrient requirements are fairly well known
 the most critical piece of information regards
digestibility/availability of nutrients within the feed
ingredient
 various indices: digestible energy (DE), metabolisable
energy (ME), apparent protein digestibility (APD), etc.
 these can be set in formula with restrictions
 Expressing the Nutrient & Energy Content (DM/as-
is-bases)
185

Expressing the Nutrient & Energy Content
A) Dry matter (DM) basis - The amount contained in only the
DM portion of the feed ingredient/diet, i.e., without water.
[Because feeds contain varying amounts of DM, perhaps,
simpler and more accurate if both the composition and
nutrient requirements are expressed on a DM basis!?]
B) As-fed basis - The amount contained in the feed
ingredient/diet as it would be fed to the animal; including
water.
C) Air-dry basis:
1) Usually, assumed to be approximately 90% DM.
2) Most feeds will equilibrate to about 90% DM after a
prolonged, aerobic storage.
3) Air-dry and as-fed basis may be the same for many
common feeds. 186

Expressing the Nutrient & Energy Content
1)Percent dry matter?
 Determined by drying a sample to remove all
the moisture, and the weight of the remaining
is expressed as a percent of the original
weight.
Example - "1.0 g of maize grain is dried and
0.90 g of maize grain remained after drying,"
then:
0.9/1.0*100=90% DM
187

2/As-Fed Basis Converted to DM
Basis
a) Can be converted by:
188
Nutrient % on as-fed basis = Nutrient % on DM
basis
% DM in the feed expressed as
decimal fraction
% Nutrient (as-fed basis) = % Nutrient (DM basis)
% Feed DM 100% DM
OR

As-Fed Basis Converted to DM Basis
• Example - "Alfalfa silage analyzed to contain
7% CP on an as-fed basis and contained 40%
DM. What would be the CP content on DM
basis?"
• (0.07 ÷ 0.40)*100 = 17.5% CP on DM basis, or
189
7 = X = 17.5% CP on DM basis
40 100

3/DM Basis Converted to As-Fed
Basis
Can be converted by:
A) Nutrient % on DM basis x % DM in the
feed expressed as decimal fraction =
Nutrient % on as-fed basis
OR
190
% Nutrient (as-fed
basis)
= % Nutrient (DM
basis)
% Feed DM 100% DM

3/DM Basis Converted to As-Fed
Basis
• Example? - "Alfalfa silage analyzed contain
10% crude fiber (CF) on a DM basis. If the
linseed meal contains 91% DM, what would be
the % CF expressed on an as-fed basis?“
– 10.0 x 0.91 = 9.1, thus 9.1% on as-fed basis, or
191
x 10 = 9.1% Crude fiber on as-fed
basis
91 100

4/DM/as-fed basis Converted to
Air-Dry Basis
A) DM basis to air-dry basis (90% DM):
 Nutrient % on DM basis x 0.90 = Nutrient
% on air-dry basis
B) As-fed basis to air-dry basis (90% DM):
= (90/ % Feed DM)x Nutrient % on as-fed
basis = Nutrient % on air-dry basis
192

5/Amount in DM and as-fed?
A) Amount in DM = Amount in as-fed  DM
content (decimal)
B) Amount in DM = X (amount in as-fed) 
DM content (decimal)
Amount in as-fed?
X = Amount in DM/ DM content (Decimal)
193

6/ Rule of thumb for conversions
A. When converting from "as-fed to DM?"
• 1) The nutrient content will increase.
• 2)The weight will decrease
B. When converting from "DM to as-fed?"
• 1) The nutrient content will decrease.
• 2) The weight will increase.
194

Balancing rations-using the
Pearson Square
• EXAMPLE
• 1,000 kg of feed is needed to feed a 50-kg
growing calves. A feeding standards table
shows that a 14% crude protein ration is
needed. Maize and Soybean oil meal
(SBOM) are selected as feeds. A feed
composition table shows that maize has
8.9% and SBOM has 45.8% CP on DM
basis. How much maize and soybean oil
meal need to be mixed together for 1,000 kg
of feed? 195

STEP 1
• Draw a square with lines connecting the
opposite corners.
• Write the percent of crude protein (14) in the
center of the square.
14
196

STEP 2
• Write the feeds to be used and their crude
protein percents at the left hand corners of
the square.
14
Maize 8.9
Soybean oil meal 45.8
197

STEP 3
• Subtract the smaller number from the larger,
along the diagonal lines. Write the
differences at the opposite end of the
diagonals.
14
Corn 8.9
Soybean
oil meal 45.8
31.8= 45.8-14
5.1 =14-8.9
198

STEP 3
• The difference between the percent protein in
the soybean oil meal and the percent protein in
the ration are the parts of maize needed.
• The difference between the percent protein in
the maize and the percent protein in the ration
are the parts of soybean oil meal needed.
• The sum of the numbers on the right equals the
difference in the numbers on the left. This fact
is used as a check to see if the square is set up
correctly.
199

STEP 3
14
Maize 8.9
Soybean
oil meal 45.8
31.8
5.1
36.9 36.9
Parts maize
Parts SBOM
200

STEP 4
• Divide the parts of each feed by the total
parts to find the percent of each feed in
the ration
–Maize 31.8/36.9 x100 = 86.2%
–Soybean oil meal =5.1/36.9x100=13.8%
201

STEP 5
• It is known that 1,000 kg of the mixture is
needed. To find the kg of each feed in the
mix, the percent of each feed is multiplied by
the total kilograms of the mix
– Maize 1,000 x 0.862= 862 kg
– SBOM 1,000 x 0.138= 138 kg
*Numbers have been rounded to full pounds.
202

STEP 6
• Check the mix to ensure that the protein need
is met. Multiply the pounds of the feed in the
it’s precent protein .
– Maize 862 kg  0.089= 77 kg of maize protein
– SBOM 138kg  0.458= 63 kg of SBOM protein
• Add the kgs of protein together
– 77kg + 63kg = 140kg
• Divide by the total weight of the mix
– 140kg/1,000kg x 100= 14%
• The mix is balanced for crude protein content!
203

Using Algebraic Equation to
Balance Ration
• May be used instead of Pearson Square
• Basic equations are
 X= kilograms of grain needed
 Y= kilograms of supplement
• Equation #1
 X+Y= total kilogram of mix needed
• Equation # 2
 (% Nutrient in grain)  (X) + (% Nutrient in
supplement)  (Y) = kilograms of nutrient desired
204

EXAMPLE
• Same example as the 1st Pearson Square
Example
• Mix of 1,000 kg is to be balanced for protein
using two feeds.
• Place the desired values in equation 2
– REMEMBER TO EXPRESS % AS DECIMALS
• 0.089X+0.458Y=140
– 140 is found by multiplying the quantity of feed
(1,000 kg) by the percent (14) [or the amount] of
nutrient desired: 1,000 x 0.14
205

EXAMPLE cont…
• Either X or Y must be canceled by the
multiplication of equation 1 by the
percentage of nutrients for either X or Y, and
the resulting equation 3 is subtracted from
equation 2.
• This example uses the percentage crude
protein for maize (0.089), giving equation 3
0.089X+0.089Y = 89 (89 is found by multiplying
0.089  1,000 kg)
206

EXAMPLE cont…
 SUBTRACT equation 3 from equation 2
 0.089X + 0.458Y =140
-0.089X - 0.089Y = -89
0+ 0.369Y= 51
Y= 138 kilograms soybean meal
 X may then be found by substituting the value of Y in
equation or 2 and solving
 X+138 = 1,000
 X=1,000-138
 X= 862 kg of maize
OR , you can use equation 2:
 (0.089X + 0.458 (138) =140
207

Algebraic Equations
• Get the same result as Pearson square
• May be used to balance rations using 3 or
more feeds
• Same initial step must be taken as when
using the Pearson Square—group similar
feeds into two groups and determine the
proportions of each to be used in each
group
– After this is done the same procedure as above
is followed. 208

Algebraic diet formulation (equation with one unknown, X)
(A)
Example - "Formulate a 12% CP diet using corn (8.8% CP) and
a protein supplement (35% CP), with 3% rye (11.9% CP) and
7.5% milo (11.0% CP)."
2) Known quantities?
 3% rye + 7.5% milo = 10.5%, thus the remaining 89.5% to
be balanced!
3) Procedure & check? Algebraic equation with one un known, X:
 If % supplement = X
 % corn = 89.5 - X
 0.119 (3) + 0.11 (7.5) + 0.088 (89.5 - X) + 0.35X = 0.12 (100)
 From left, lb CP from rye, lb CP from milo, lb CP from corn, lb
CP from supplement, and lb CP in 100 lb of diet.
209

Algebraic diet formulation (equation
with one unknown, X), Contin….
• 0.357 + 0.825 + 7.876 - 0.088X + 0.35X = 12
0.35X - 0.088X = 12 - 7.876 - 0.825 -0.357
0.262X = 2.942
X = 11.229 [lb supplement]
89.5 - X = 78.271 [lb corn]
• Check?
• 0.119 (3) + 0.11 (7.5) + 0.088 (78.271) + 0.35 (11.229) = ?
• 0.357 + 0.825 + 6.888 + 3.930 = 12
210

B. Algebraic diet formulation (using
equations with two unknowns, X & Y)
 The same example - "Formulate a 12% CP diet using
corn (8.8% CP) and a protein supplement (35% CP), with
3% rye (11.9% CP) and 7.5% milo (11.0% CP).”
 Known quantities & fixed amount of CP?
 a) 3% Rye + 7.5% milo = 10.5%, thus remaining 89.5%
to be balanced.
 b) 0.119 (3) + 0.11 (7.5)
= 0.357 + 0.825 = 1.182, or 1.182 lb of CP per 100 lb
of diet (or 1.182%) is fixed.
 Thus, the remaining protein (10.818 lb/100 lb feed)
must be balanced with corn and supplement., 1.182+
10.818=12
3) Procedure & check? - See below 211

Algebraic equation with two unknowns, X & Y:
• X = lb corn in the diet
• Y = lb supplement in the diet
• Equation 1: X + Y = 89.5 lb diet
• Equation 2: 0.088X + 0.35Y = 10.818 lb CP
• Equation 3: -0.088X + -0.088Y = -7.876 (=0.08889.5)
0 + 0.262Y = 2.942
Y= 11.229 (lb supplement)
X = 89.5 - 11.229 = 78.271 (lb corn)
• Check?
• 0.119 (3) + 0.11 (7.5) + 0.088 (78.271) + 0.35 (11.229) = ?
• 0.357 + 0.825 + 6.888 + 3.930 = 12
212

C. Pearson square
1) The same example - "Formulate a 12% CP diet using corn
(8.8% CP) and a protein supplement (35% CP), with 3% rye
(11.9% CP) and 7.5% milo (11.0% CP)."
2) Known quantities & fixed amount of CP?
a) 3% Rye + 7.5% milo = 10.5%, thus remaining 89.5% to be
balanced.
b) 0.119 (3) + 0.11 (7.5) = 0.357 + 0.825 = 1.182, or 1.182 lb of
CP per 100 lb of diet (or 1.182%) is fixed.
 Thus, the remaining protein (10.818 lb/100 lb of feed or
10.818%) must be balanced with corn and supplement.
c) Need to determine the % CP necessary in corn supplement
combination to provide 10.818 lb/100 lb of feed . . .
10.818/89.5 x 100 = 12.087%.
3) Procedure & check? - See below
213

Pearson square
• Subtract the smaller number from the larger,
along the diagonal lines. Write the differences
at the opposite end of the diagonals.
12.08%
Corn 8.8
Supplement 35 %
22.913 parts corn
3.287 parts supplement
26.2 total parts
214

Pearson square
• 22.913 parts corn/26.2 total parts100 =87.454% corn
• 3.287 parts supplement/26.2 total parts100 = 12.546%
supplement
– 89.5 x 87.454% = 78.271 lb corn
– 89.5 x 12.546% = 11.229 lb supplement
• Check?
– 3.00 lb rye  11.9% CP = 0.357 lb CP
– 7.50 lb milo  11.0% CP = 0.825 lb CP
– 78.271 lb corn  8.8% CP = 6.888 lb CP
– 11.229 lb supplement  35.0% CP = 3.930 lb CP
– 100.00 lb diet 12.000 lb CP
215

Formulate a supplement (500 kg) to be fed with
1,500 kg of maize of complete diet."
%CP, % Ca, , % P,
Maize 8.8 0.03 0.27
SBOM 50.9 0.26 0.62
Dical - 23.35 18.21
Lime - 35.8 -
Use SBOM, Dical, Lime, salt, Vit premix, TM premix and maize as a carrier, and
Pigs need 14% CP, 0.5% Ca, 0.4% P, 0.5% salt, 0.1% TM (trace mineral) premix &
1.0% Vit premix. 216

Determine the "specifications" for the supplement
a) Complete diet is:
– 1500/2000100 = 75% maize
– 500/2000100 = 25% supplement
b) % CP in supplement:
– 0.088 (0.75) + X(25) = 0.14
0.066 + 0.25X = 0.14
0. 25X = 0.074
X = 0.296
[Thus, 0.296 x 100 = 29.6% (% CP in
supplement)]
217

c) % Ca in supplement:
0.0003 (0.75) + X (0. 25) = 0.005
0.000225 + 0.25X = 0.005
0.25X = 0.4775
X = 0.0191
[Thus, 0.0191 x 100 = 1.91% (% Ca in supplement)]
d/ % P in supplement:
0.0027 (0.75) + X (0.25) = 0.004
0.2025 + 25X = 0.004
0.25X = 0.001975
X = 0.0079
[Thus, 0.0079 X100 = 0.79% (% P in supplement)]
218

e) % salt in supplement:
0 (0.75) + X (0.25) = 0.005
X = 0.02
[Thus, 0.02 x 100 = 2% (% salt in supplement)]
f) % TM in supplement:
0 (0.75) + X (0.25) = 0.001
X = 0.004
[Thus, 0.004 x 100 = 0.4% (% TM premix in
supplement)]
219
Supplement specification, %
CP 29.6
Ca 1.9
P 0.8
Salt 2.0
TM premix 0.4
Vit premix 4

Ration formulation, Example 4
• In this example, a ration will be balanced using corn,
wheat hay, and cotton seed meal (feed values are listed
as: maize, 88% DM, 88.9% TDN, 9.8% CP, 0.03% Ca,
0.31% P; wheat hay: 84% DM, 53% TDN, 9.1% CP,
0.16% Ca, 0.24% P; cottonseed meal: 92% DM, 75%
TDN, 46.1% CP, 0.20% Ca, 1.16%P) for a 350-kg heifer
calf with a desired gain of 2.5 lb/day. Her daily
requirements are (heifer: weight 700, DMI (lb/d, 16.4),
ADG (lb/d, 2.5), TDN, lb/day (12.6 lb), CP, lb/day (1.68),
Ca, lb/day (28), P, lb/day (16):
– 16.4 lb daily dry matter intake
– 76.8% TDN (12.6 lb TDN ÷ 16.4 lb dry matter intake)
– 10.2% CP (1.68 lb CP ÷ 16.4 lb dry matter intake)
220

To balance this ration:
1) Balance for TDN
1.Draw a square and write 76.8 (the desired TDN
concentration) in the middle of the square (fig. 4)
2.At the upper left corner of the square, write “wheat
hay = 53%”.
3.At the lower left corner, write “corn = 88.9%”. These
numbers represent the TDN percentage in each
feedstuff.
 Note: The nutrient requirement in the middle of the
square must be between the nutrient concentrations
of the two ingredients. 221

Balance for TDN
4/ Subtract diagonally across the square, converting
negative answers to positive, and write the numbers on
the right side of the square (top value = 11.2, bottom
value = 23.8%)
5/ Sum the numbers on the right side of the square (11.2 +
23.8 = 35%). These numbers indicate that a ration of
11.2 parts wheat hay and 23.8 parts corn (a total of 35
parts) will result in a ration with 76.8 percent TDN.
6/ Divide the wheat hay and corn “parts” by 35 to get the
percentages of wheat hay (11.2 ÷ 35 = 32%) and corn
(23.8 ÷ 35 = 68%). 222

Balancing for TDN using the Pearson Square method
Balacing:
76.8%
Wheat hay 53%
Whole corn 88.9 %
11.2 ÷ 35 = 0.32 (32%
23.8 ÷ 35 = 0.68 (68%)
35 total parts 100%
223

2. Determine if crude protein is adequate
a) Multiply the percent of each feedstuff in the mix by its
crude protein content. Wheat hay is 32 percent of the mix
and contains 9.1 percent crude protein. Corn is 68 percent
of the mix and contains 9.8 percent crude protein.
Therefore, the crude protein concentration in the mix is:
– Wheat hay: 0.32 × 9.1 = 2.91%
– Corn: 0.68 × 9.8 = 6.66%
– 2.91 + 6.66 = 9.57%,  crude protein is not adequate
(is < 10.2%)
224

b) The crude protein content of the diet needs to be
increased by adding a protein supplement (cotton seed
meal for this example).
• Another Pearson Square will be used to determine the
correct amount of cotton seed meal.
225

3. Determine amount of protein supplement needed
a. Draw a square and write 10.2 (the desired CP
concentration) in the middle of the square.
226
wheat hay: corn mix 9.57
%
Cotton seed meal
46.1%
35.9 ÷ 36.53 = .983
(98.3%)
0.63 ÷ 36.53 = 0.017
(1.7%)
10.2%

• b. At the upper left corner of the square, write
“wheat hay:corn mix = 9.57”. At the lower left
corner, write “cottonseed meal = 46.1”.
• These numbers represent the CP percentage
in each feedstuff.
• Note: The nutrient requirement in the middle
of the square must be between the nutrient
concentrations of the two ingredients.
227

• c. Subtract diagonally across the square,
converting negative answers to positive,
and write the numbers on the right side of
the square (top value = 35.9, bottom value
= 0.63).
228

d). Sum the numbers on the right side of the
square (35.9 + 0.63 = 36.53). These numbers
indicate that a ration of 35.9 parts wheat hay:
corn mix and 0.63 parts cottonseed meal (a
total of 36.53 parts) will result in a ration with
10.2 percent CP.
e). Divide the wheat hay: corn mix and
cottonseed meal “parts” by 36.53 to get the
percentages of wheat hay: corn mix (35.9 ÷
36.53 = 98.3%) and cottonseed meal (0.63 ÷
36.53 = 1.7%).
229

4. Determine the pounds of dry matter that each feedstuff
contributes to the total, and convert from dry matter to as-fed
basis.
A)
Multiply the dry matter intake of the heifer (16.4 lb) by the
percentage of cotton seed meal in the ration (16.4 × 0.017 =
0.28 lb cottonseed meal).
Subtract this amount from total dry matter intake to determine
how much of the dry matter intake remains for the wheat hay
: corn mix (16.4 – 0.28 = 16.12).
Then multiply 16.12 by the relative amounts of wheat hay
and corn obtained from the first Pearson square (32 percent
wheat hay and 68 percent corn).
• Wheat hay: 16.12 × 0.32 = 5.16 lb wheat hay, dry
matter basis 230

b)
• Convert the individual amounts from dry
matter to as-fed basis. This step is required in
order to know how much of each ingredient to
feed to the heifer. The pounds of dry matter of
each feed are divided by the percentage of
dry matter in each feed.
– Cotton seed meal: 0.28 lb ÷ 0.92 = 0.30 lb CSM,
as fed
– Wheat hay: 5.16 ÷ 0.84 = 6.14 lb alfalfa hay, as-
fed
– Corn: 10.96 ÷ 0.88 = 12.45 lb whole corn, as-fed
basis
231

Example 5.Using the Pearson Square to Mix
Two Grains with a Supplement (START)
• Can be used to find out how much of two
grains should be mixed with a supplement
• Proportions of grain must be known first
232

EXAMPLE
• 2,000 pound mix of corn, oats and
soybean oil meal is needed. The mix is to
contain 16% Digestible Protein. A decision
is made to use ¾ corn and ¼ oats in the
mix. Thus, the proportion of corn to oats is
3:1. SBOM has 41.7% CP. How many
pounds of corn, oats and soybean oil meal
are needed?
233

STEP 1
• Need to find the weighted average percent of
protein in the corn and oats first.
• To do this
– Multiply the proportion of corn (3) by the percent
digestible protein in corn (7.1). Do the same for
oats. Then add the two answers together and
divide by the total parts (4). This answer is the
weighted average percentage of digestible protein
in the corn oats mix.
– Take 7.1% TDN for corn, 9.9% TDN for oats
234

STEP 1 cont…
• 3 x 7.1=21.3 (Corn)
• 1 x 9.9= 9.9 (Oats)
31.2
• 31.2/4= 7.8% Digestible Protein in the corn-
oats mix
235

Using the Pearson Square X
• Used in the same method as before to mix two
feeds.
• On a sheet of paper, work out this problem
16
3 parts Corn, 1 part oats 7.8%
Soybean oil meal 41.7%
236