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Running head: MEDIA CONTENT PRIMING AND STEREOTYPE APPLICATION 1
The Effect of Media Content Priming on Stereotype Activation and Application
Dylan V. Russell
Western Washington University
Author Note
Dylan V. Russell, Department of Psychology, Western Washington University.
Email: russeld8@students.wwu.edu
MEDIA CONTENT PRIMING AND STEREOTYPE APPLICATION 2
Abstract
The effect of activating the stereotype “African Americans are criminals” using related media
content on the application of this stereotype was assessed. For this study, 41 participants were
recruited, all of which were undergraduate students at Western Washington University.
Participants were randomly assigned to one of three media content groups: one portrayed African
Americans negatively, one was race neutral, and one portrayed African Americans positively.
After being exposed to the priming stimuli, which consisted of a newspaper vignette with
wording that varied across the three conditions, discrimination levels were tested using the
Symbolic Racism Scale. Results showed that there was no significant difference in Symbolic
Racism Scale scores between the three media content groups. These findings suggest that
priming content such as images and sounds might be more effective than words at activating
racial stereotypes. A theoretical explanation for why non-significant results were obtained is also
provided, which focuses on the negative compatibility effect (NCE) that often accompanies
masked priming.
Keywords: media content, priming, stereotypes, activation, application, African
American
MEDIA CONTENT PRIMING AND STEREOTYPE APPLICATION 3
The Effect of Media Content Priming on Stereotype Activation and Application
There are two generally agreed upon forms of individual racism. Overt racism, or
racism in a traditional sense, is the form that is public, conscious, and intended. This form acts to
intentionally damage a person of a certain race simply because of the race of that person,
whereas covert racism is simply racism that is not explicitly public, such as the act as hiring an
employee based on their race (Scheurich, 2008). Covert racism in particular acts to systemically
disadvantage certain populations, which can take the form of limiting the access of people of
color to socioeconomic resources such as healthcare and other valuable services (Feagin, 2014).
Additionally, symbolic racism, which is a belief system that reflects underlying discrimination
towards African Americans, is a common form of discrimination that relies entirely on acts of
racism that are covert (Maxwell, 2013). Implicit stereotypes, which are those that imply racist
ideas without directly stating them, are central to covert acts of symbolic racism and are learned
from various sources, such as the media. The purpose of the present study is to assess the
immediate priming effects of media exposure on the application of racial stereotypes in order to
determine how influential media is in racial stereotype activation and application.
Unfortunately, stereotypes that act against certain groups of people are not obtained
during the later stages of life. In one study it was found that children endorse stereotypes and
exhibit prejudice based on traits such as gender and race by the time they start formal schooling
(Bigler, 2014). Beyond being exposed to racially discriminatory ideas about certain ethnic
groups, children suffer from racial stereotypes in other ways as well. Specifically, it has be found
that experiencing acts of racism may be a factor contributing to poor health and healthcare
disparities in minority children (Pachter, 2010). Stereotype acquirement and the detriments of
MEDIA CONTENT PRIMING AND STEREOTYPE APPLICATION 4
these beliefs might not be significant if these stereotypes were not widespread, but research has
shown that racial stereotypes are more prevalent than most realize.
In one article focusing on stereotype prevalence, the researchers found that
common phrases that reflected stereotypic beliefs of certain ethnicities were common, and that
they were used on a daily basis by the participants involved in the study (Kite, 2012). While it
may not seem feasible that a source such as media could be powerful enough to influence the
minds of youth, one must keep in mind that children are especially impressionable and learn
much of what it means to become a member of the community through powerful influences such
as media. In one particular study, it was found that images and phrases seen in media in general
and on television in particular perpetuated negative stereotypes about African Americans
(Martin, 2008). Further, it is true that modern American media is replete with negative
stereotypes associated with African Americans. In particular, African American characters
within the media are often portrayed as either violent, criminal, or both (Babtiste, 1986). African
Americans being associated with crime in a stereotypical way is nothing new. After the civil
rights movement, the association between blacks and crime and violence became concrete. This
persistent and inaccurate portrayal of African Americans has resulted in the stereotype
associating African Americans with crime and violence. It is so pervasive, in fact, that the term
“criminal predator” is essentially used as a euphemism for “young black male” (Welch, 2007).
The incredibly negative impacts of stereotypes on those who they adversely affect
cannot be denied. Not only does racism and its associated stereotypes affect easily observable
psychological characteristics such as self-esteem, it also impacts factors such as the identity
development of minority adolescents. A study conducted to determine the adverse effects of
media promoted stereotypes on identity development in African American adolescents found that
MEDIA CONTENT PRIMING AND STEREOTYPE APPLICATION 5
stereotypical images seen on television negatively impact the identity development of African
American adolescents (Martin, 2008). Another study focusing on the impacts of systemic racism
in the United States found that institutionalized white socioeconomic resources restricts
healthcare access to many Americans of color (Feagin, 2014). The researchers involved
concluded that oppression of Americans of color and their subsequent lack of access to certain
resources was caused mainly by large scale discrimination and racialized framing, ideas that
label whites as the superior group.
In direct relation to the present research, one study found evidence for the idea that
stereotypes are activated automatically if certain categorical cues, such as stereotype related
stimuli, are taken in and analyzed (Muller, 2014). In this particular study, the researchers tested
their hypothesis related to the automatic activation of stereotypes by priming their subjects with
stereotype related stimuli and then determining whether or not that priming caused participants
to categorize names as male or female at a faster rate. Another study obtained very similar results
and found that participants primed with stereotype activating stimuli were far quicker to apply
related stereotypes in certain situations (Wang, 2015). Further research focusing on media
priming effects and the activation and application of stereotypes found that stereotypic content
within the media acted to prime participants to more readily activate implicit stereotypes, and
further concluded that this content can impact implicit stereotypes even if the media content is
perceived as invalid (Arendt, 2013).
Priming the activation and application of stereotypes may seem confusing and
ambiguous, but successful stereotype priming techniques have been used in the past. One of the
most effective methods is identifying stereotype trait words, such as “male” or “female”, to
prime the use of stereotypes (Wang, 2010). The study that utilized this technique found that
MEDIA CONTENT PRIMING AND STEREOTYPE APPLICATION 6
stereotypes, specifically gender stereotypes, could be activated by priming participants with
stereotype trait words (male and female). Another study testing the priming effects of words
related to self-control on the activation of immigrant stereotypes found that participants primed
with words related to self-control had more positive opinions of immigrants than those primed
with neutral words (Araya, 2002). While few studies have focused on the specific priming effects
of words related to racial stereotypes, there are one or two that provide useful insights. One in
particular tested the priming effects of words related to African American stereotypes. In this
study, it was found that participants primed with the words “African” and “American” rated an
imaginary patient far less favorably on hostility-related issues than participants primed with
neutral words (Abreu, 1999).
Priming content, however, is not limited simply to words that are connected to a
stereotype; it can include a wide range of stimuli such as individuals or symbols from the group
that the stereotype acts against as well as any other content that contains aspects of a particular
stereotype (Bargh, 1996). Images related to aspects of certain group stereotypes, for example,
have been used to prime the activation and application of stereotypes. The results of one study
concluded that priming the “Black criminal” stereotype using media images of African
Americans looting after hurricane Katrina resulted in lower levels of support for African
American hurricane Katrina evacuees that were in need (Johnson, 2009). Finally, it should be
noted that there is a distinct difference between stereotype activation and stereotype application.
Stereotype activation simply refers to an increase in the accessibility of stereotype related
information, while stereotype application refers to using that information in perceptual or
evaluative processes (Bargh, 1999). The stimuli that acted to prime stereotypes in the studies
MEDIA CONTENT PRIMING AND STEREOTYPE APPLICATION 7
described above, then, resulted in increased stereotype activation which then had a dramatic
effect on its application.
While research has clearly shown that stereotypes can be activated using stereotype
content and word priming techniques, few studies have focused on the priming effects of race
related stereotype content found in media sources. It is true that media content such as images
have been used for stereotype priming, but results may differ dramatically if the media based
stereotype content is more complicated. Further, the activation and application of stereotypes
related to discrimination such as symbolic racism has been, for the most part, neglected. Finally,
the idea that media content influences the beliefs, and more specifically, the stereotypes we hold
is consistent with the social conditioning theory. According to this theory, stereotype formation
is largely unintentional and is driven by social forces, such as media and human interaction.
Stereotypical ideas about certain groups being presented results in illusory correlations, or the
overestimation of negative behaviors associated with minority groups (Smith, 2007).
The purpose of the present study is to assess the impact of priming the stereotype
that African Americans are criminals using related media content on the application of this
stereotype as measured by the Symbolic Racism Scale. Further, this study is a one-way between
subjects ANOVA with an independent variable of priming stimuli and a dependent variable of
score on the Symbolic Racism Scale. Due to the fact that media content such as photography has
been used effectively as priming material in the past, participants will read one of three
newspaper excerpts: one that portrays African Americans as criminals, one that is race neutral,
and one that portrays African Americans as helpful. After being exposed to their respective news
excerpt, participants will fill out a survey measuring the extent to which they agree with
symbolically racist statements that pertain directly to African Americans. Based on past research,
MEDIA CONTENT PRIMING AND STEREOTYPE APPLICATION 8
it is predicted that participants who read the excerpt that portrays African Americans negatively
will have far more discriminatory responses on the symbolic racism scale than those in the other
two treatment groups. Further, it is predicted that those that read the excerpt that and portrays
African Americans as helpful will be the least discriminatory in their survey responses.
Method
Participants
A total of 41 participants were recruited to participate in this study, all of which
were derived from college courses at Western Washington University. Further, 18 (43.9%) males
and 23 (56.1%) females participated in this study, and ranged in age from 18-40 (M = 20.22, SD
= 3.46). Additionally, the ethnicity of the participants varied significantly, as can be seen by the
following distribution that shows the percentage of participants that identified with each
ethnicity: 61.0% White, 17.1% Mixed Ethnicity, 9.8% Asian, 7.3% Hispanic, and 4.9% African
American.
For practical purposes, convenience sampling was used to obtain this particular
sample. All participants involved in this study were recruited using the SONA online research
system. In addition, all participants took part in this study as part of a requirement for a particular
psychology course.
Materials and Procedure
Within the different experimental conditions, participants will be exposed to one of
three vignettes fashioned as a newspaper article: one that contains stereotype related media
content that portrays African Americans as criminals, one that is race neutral, and one that
contains media content that portrays African Americans positively. The stereotype related media
MEDIA CONTENT PRIMING AND STEREOTYPE APPLICATION 9
content in the negative news excerpt will be represented by the African American character in
the story incurring violence, while the news excerpt for the third independent variable condition
will portray the African American character as a hero. Additionally, a neutral condition exists
that does not mention race at all. In this condition, the two characters are referred to as “a man”
and “another man.” Each vignette is identical in every way except for the identities of the
attacker and the hero, which shifts based on whether or not the African American character is
being portrayed negatively or positively. In the vignette portraying the African Americans as
criminals, the African American character is the criminal while a Caucasian man is cast as the
hero. Finally, the vignette portraying African Americans positively will label an African
American man as the hero and a Caucasian man as a criminal.
The measure being used for the dependent variable in this study is the Symbolic
Racism Scale. This measure assesses the extent to which participants agree with symbolically
racist ideas related to African Americans, and as a result more specifically measures participants’
level of discrimination towards African Americans. This measure was comprised of seven
selections, all similar to each other in format. A sample selection reads: “Over the past few years,
African Americans have gotten less than they deserve.” When responding to selections on this
scale, participants were asked to indicate how much they agreed with them by selecting a number
from 1 to 4, with 1 meaning strongly agree and 4 meaning strongly disagree. For most of the
selections, a higher score indicated a higher level of discrimination towards African Americans.
For items 2, 3, 4, and 5, however, the values had to be reverse coded due to the fact that higher
scores on these selections indicated lower levels of discrimination towards African Americans.
When assigning a score to each participant, the circled values were simply totaled, with a higher
score indicating a higher level of discrimination towards African Americans. The Chronbach’s
MEDIA CONTENT PRIMING AND STEREOTYPE APPLICATION 10
alpha for this scale was .84, indicating a high level of internal reliability. Finally, 41 participants
completed this survey.
Procedure
Participants were assigned randomly to one of the following three conditions:
stimulus portraying African Americans as criminals, race neutral stimulus, and stimulus
portraying African Americans positively. Random assignment to conditions was accomplished
by assigning each condition to a particular data collection time, making the distribution of
participants that signed up to participate in this study random. Each experimental session began
with participants filling out and turning in a consent form, which informed them of the risks and
benefits of participating in this study. Participants were then told to silently read a short vignette
and to not interact with their fellow participants while doing so. After reading the vignette,
participants were handed the Symbolic Racism Scale and were told to fill it out silently. After
completing the survey, participants then filled out a brief demographics questionnaire. Upon
completion of the relevant materials, participants were given a debriefing form and asked to
leave the testing area.
Results
We analyzed the data using SPSS 22.0 at a = .05 for a one-way between subjects
ANOVA with a dependent variable of score on the Symbolic Racism Scale and an independent
variable of priming stimuli (vignette portraying African Americans as criminals vs. race neutral
vignette vs. vignette portraying African Americans as helpful). The means, standard deviations,
standard error of means, and confidence intervals are shown in Table 1. We did not find a
significant difference in scores on the Symbolic Racism Scale between the different priming
MEDIA CONTENT PRIMING AND STEREOTYPE APPLICATION 11
stimuli. F(2,42) = .740, p = .484, SEM = .45 (see Table 2). Since the results of the omnibus F
ratio test were not significant, no follow-up analysis was necessary to determine which means
differed from which.
Discussion
The result of the statistical analysis for this study was non-significant, meaning that the
mean Symbolic Racism scores of all three stimulus conditions did not differ significantly from
one another. More specifically, the results show that scores on the Symbolic Racism Scale, the
likes of which signified participants’ level of discrimination towards African Americans, did not
differ significantly as a function of the priming stimulus that participants were exposed to. As
mentioned previously, there were two alternative hypotheses pertaining to this study. One
hypothesis stated that participants in the negative portrayal group would have higher levels of
discrimination towards African Americans while the other predicted that participants in the
positive portrayal group would have the lowest levels of discrimination towards African
Americans. Since the result of the omnibus F ratio test was non-significant, it can be concluded
that the results of this study do not support either of the alternative hypotheses.
In relation to past research done on stereotype priming, it would appear that the results of
this study are not consistent with past findings. One major inconsistency is that the data collected
from this study indicates that stereotype priming did not occur after the participants were
exposed to the media content. Had priming occurred, it is likely that results similar to those of
Johnson (2009) and Abreu (1999) would have been seen. In these studies, exposure to priming
stimuli, either stereotype trait words or images from the media, resulted in the activation of
certain race related stereotypes. Although the results of the current study may give the
impression that priming the stereotype “African Americans are criminals” did not occur, it is
MEDIA CONTENT PRIMING AND STEREOTYPE APPLICATION 12
possible that stereotype activation took place in the absence stereotype application. When self-
report is being used to measure participants’ opinions on sensitive topics, there is the persistent
and very real concern that participants will report a distorted version of their true opinion in
order to align with social norms (Fleming, 2012).
The findings of this study were also inconsistent with past findings that showed
categorical cues acting as priming stimuli for stereotypes. The findings from a study conducted
by Muller (2014) showed that stereotypes can be activated automatically when categorical cues
are taken in and analyzed. Further, this study concluded that stereotype related stimuli would be
impactful enough to increase access to stereotype related information. Had the findings of the
current study been consistent with these results, we would have expected the negative portrayal
of African Americans in the negative vignette to act as a categorical cue that led to more
discriminatory responses on the Symbolic Racism Scale. Additionally, other studies suggest that
priming can actually act to lessen the activation of certain stereotypes. Araya (2002) provided
evidence for this phenomena by showing that participants primed with words related to self-
control had more positive opinions of immigrants than those primed with neutral words. This
was the basis of the second alternative hypothesis for the current study. Had the results been
consistent with the findings described above, it is likely that participants in the positive portrayal
group would have been the least discriminatory in their responses on the Symbolic Racism Scale.
Masked priming, and the negative compatibility effect that often time accompanies it,
could provide theoretical insight as to why typical stereotype activation and application was not
seen in the current study. Masked priming, which is commonly utilized to evaluate phonological
and orthographic word recognition, is the act of presenting symbols before or after priming
content in order to obscure it. These symbols can either be presented before the target stimuli
MEDIA CONTENT PRIMING AND STEREOTYPE APPLICATION 13
(forward masking) or after the target stimuli (backward masking) (Sumner, 2008). Again, while
this type of priming is typically seen in studies focusing on simple word priming, it seems
reasonable to suggest that the words surrounding the priming content within the vignettes of the
current study acted as masking material. While masking does not appear to be harmful when it is
appraised at face value, it often times results in counter-intuitive priming effects.
Many studies have provided evidence for the idea that masked priming can result in
counter-intuitive negative compatibility effects (NCE). When this is seen, priming in the
direction opposite of the priming content occurs. More specifically, in simple priming
experiments measuring participant reaction time, it is often the case that masked primes result in
decreased reaction times as opposed to increased reaction times (Sumner, 2008). Negative
compatibility effects are not always seen when primes are masked, however. It is most prevalent
in situations where the target is similar to the prime. Thus, in regards to the current study, it is
likely that a counter intuitive priming effect was seen for several reasons. First, it is likely that
the words surrounding the stereotype related content in the vignettes acted to mask it in both a
forward and backward direction. It is also plausible that this masking resulted in a negative
compatibility effect (NCE), or a priming effect that was opposite in direction to the priming
material. One possible explanation for why this occurred is that the priming material in the
newspaper vignettes was very similar in nature to the target material on the symbolic racism
scale; in the negative portrayal group, for example, participants read about a crime perpetrated by
an African American man and then proceeded to indicate the extent to which they agreed with
racist statements directly pertaining to African Americans.
While this study was based on past research and designed in a thoughtful manner, there
were three notable limitations that can be improved upon in the future. Something that might
MEDIA CONTENT PRIMING AND STEREOTYPE APPLICATION 14
have acted as a confound in this experimental study was the appearance and writing style of the
newspaper vignettes. The priming stimuli in this study did not have the appearance of an actual
newspaper article but instead took the form of a simple Word document. Further, the vignettes
were not written by a journalist, and therefore did not reflect the writing style that is typically
seen in newspaper articles. While Martin (2008) pointed out that media content portraying
African Americans negatively is frequently seen, it is certainly plausible that media content is
only impactful on stereotype formation and activation if it appears to be real. Future research
utilizing media content as priming material should ensure that the content is as professional and
realistic as possible. This may make it more likely that participants interpret what they are
perceiving as genuine media content as opposed to experimental material.
Another significant limitation in this study was the tendency of participants to read the
newspaper vignette and complete the Symbolic Racism Scale as quickly as possible. Rather than
taking their time and reading over all of the materials carefully as they were instructed at the
outset of the session, an overwhelming majority of the participants involved in this study simply
flew through the materials and left the testing environment a mere five to 10 minutes after the
beginning the data collection session. In order to eliminate this issue in future studies,
participants need to be told that reading through all of the materials at a slow pace is a
requirement. Further, the data collected from individuals that refuse to adhere to this requirement
should be excluded from statistical analyses in future studies.
The third and final factor that acted as a major limitation in this study was the
obviousness of the racist statements on the Symbolic Racism Scale. All of the selections on the
SRS were implicit in nature, but they could have been obscured further by utilizing statements
that did not include words such as “discrimination” and “tension.” The fact that words like these
MEDIA CONTENT PRIMING AND STEREOTYPE APPLICATION 15
were present in the SRS made it likely that participants were aware that their level of
discrimination towards African Americans was being measured. As mentioned previously, when
participants are aware that a sensitive topic, such as racism, is being focused on, they will alter
their opinions in order to adhere to what is socially acceptable. In order to avoid having
participants fall victim to social desirability in the future, participants should be assessed
individually. This would likely diffuse tension and would allow participants to share their
opinions in an honest manner. Future studies could also utilize a distraction task such as a puzzle
or a math assignment to make what is truly being measured less obvious.
Although the results of this study were non-significant, there are certainly numerous
implications that can be derived from what was found. One implication based on the results of
this study is the idea that perhaps written media is less effective in terms of activating stereotypes
than other forms of media, such as images and audio recordings. In fact, research has shown that
visual images are more effective as priming stimuli when compared to words. In one study, it
was shown that pictures were more effective than words as priming stimuli in experiments
focused on implicit memory tasks (Kinjo, 2000). Understanding that images may be more
effective than words as priming material can provide insight as to which forms of media should
be censored. More specifically, if images, such as those seen on television, are more likely to
instill and activate stereotypes, efforts can be focused on limiting peoples’ access to media
content that promotes and perpetuates racial stereotypes.
MEDIA CONTENT PRIMING AND STEREOTYPE APPLICATION 16
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MEDIA CONTENT PRIMING AND STEREOTYPE APPLICATION 20
Table 1
Table of the mean scores on the Symbolic Racism Scale, standard deviations, standard error of
the means, and confidence intervals for each priming stimuli
95% Confidence Interval
Priming Stimuli M SD SEM Lower Upper
Negative Portrayal 13.23 3.17 .88 11.32 15.14
Race Neutral 11.93 2.71 .70 10.43 13.43
Positive Portrayal 12.77 2.74 .76 11.11 14.43
MEDIA CONTENT PRIMING AND STEREOTYPE APPLICATION 21
Table 2
ANOVA Summary Table of Symbolic Racism Scores as a Function of the priming stimuli
Assigned
(Negative Portrayal vs. Race Nuetral vs. Positive Portrayal)
Source SS df MS F p
Priming Stimuli 12.21 2 6.10 .740 .484
Error 313.55 38 8.25
Total 325.76 40

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Research Paper (Stereotype Activation and Application)

  • 1. Running head: MEDIA CONTENT PRIMING AND STEREOTYPE APPLICATION 1 The Effect of Media Content Priming on Stereotype Activation and Application Dylan V. Russell Western Washington University Author Note Dylan V. Russell, Department of Psychology, Western Washington University. Email: russeld8@students.wwu.edu
  • 2. MEDIA CONTENT PRIMING AND STEREOTYPE APPLICATION 2 Abstract The effect of activating the stereotype “African Americans are criminals” using related media content on the application of this stereotype was assessed. For this study, 41 participants were recruited, all of which were undergraduate students at Western Washington University. Participants were randomly assigned to one of three media content groups: one portrayed African Americans negatively, one was race neutral, and one portrayed African Americans positively. After being exposed to the priming stimuli, which consisted of a newspaper vignette with wording that varied across the three conditions, discrimination levels were tested using the Symbolic Racism Scale. Results showed that there was no significant difference in Symbolic Racism Scale scores between the three media content groups. These findings suggest that priming content such as images and sounds might be more effective than words at activating racial stereotypes. A theoretical explanation for why non-significant results were obtained is also provided, which focuses on the negative compatibility effect (NCE) that often accompanies masked priming. Keywords: media content, priming, stereotypes, activation, application, African American
  • 3. MEDIA CONTENT PRIMING AND STEREOTYPE APPLICATION 3 The Effect of Media Content Priming on Stereotype Activation and Application There are two generally agreed upon forms of individual racism. Overt racism, or racism in a traditional sense, is the form that is public, conscious, and intended. This form acts to intentionally damage a person of a certain race simply because of the race of that person, whereas covert racism is simply racism that is not explicitly public, such as the act as hiring an employee based on their race (Scheurich, 2008). Covert racism in particular acts to systemically disadvantage certain populations, which can take the form of limiting the access of people of color to socioeconomic resources such as healthcare and other valuable services (Feagin, 2014). Additionally, symbolic racism, which is a belief system that reflects underlying discrimination towards African Americans, is a common form of discrimination that relies entirely on acts of racism that are covert (Maxwell, 2013). Implicit stereotypes, which are those that imply racist ideas without directly stating them, are central to covert acts of symbolic racism and are learned from various sources, such as the media. The purpose of the present study is to assess the immediate priming effects of media exposure on the application of racial stereotypes in order to determine how influential media is in racial stereotype activation and application. Unfortunately, stereotypes that act against certain groups of people are not obtained during the later stages of life. In one study it was found that children endorse stereotypes and exhibit prejudice based on traits such as gender and race by the time they start formal schooling (Bigler, 2014). Beyond being exposed to racially discriminatory ideas about certain ethnic groups, children suffer from racial stereotypes in other ways as well. Specifically, it has be found that experiencing acts of racism may be a factor contributing to poor health and healthcare disparities in minority children (Pachter, 2010). Stereotype acquirement and the detriments of
  • 4. MEDIA CONTENT PRIMING AND STEREOTYPE APPLICATION 4 these beliefs might not be significant if these stereotypes were not widespread, but research has shown that racial stereotypes are more prevalent than most realize. In one article focusing on stereotype prevalence, the researchers found that common phrases that reflected stereotypic beliefs of certain ethnicities were common, and that they were used on a daily basis by the participants involved in the study (Kite, 2012). While it may not seem feasible that a source such as media could be powerful enough to influence the minds of youth, one must keep in mind that children are especially impressionable and learn much of what it means to become a member of the community through powerful influences such as media. In one particular study, it was found that images and phrases seen in media in general and on television in particular perpetuated negative stereotypes about African Americans (Martin, 2008). Further, it is true that modern American media is replete with negative stereotypes associated with African Americans. In particular, African American characters within the media are often portrayed as either violent, criminal, or both (Babtiste, 1986). African Americans being associated with crime in a stereotypical way is nothing new. After the civil rights movement, the association between blacks and crime and violence became concrete. This persistent and inaccurate portrayal of African Americans has resulted in the stereotype associating African Americans with crime and violence. It is so pervasive, in fact, that the term “criminal predator” is essentially used as a euphemism for “young black male” (Welch, 2007). The incredibly negative impacts of stereotypes on those who they adversely affect cannot be denied. Not only does racism and its associated stereotypes affect easily observable psychological characteristics such as self-esteem, it also impacts factors such as the identity development of minority adolescents. A study conducted to determine the adverse effects of media promoted stereotypes on identity development in African American adolescents found that
  • 5. MEDIA CONTENT PRIMING AND STEREOTYPE APPLICATION 5 stereotypical images seen on television negatively impact the identity development of African American adolescents (Martin, 2008). Another study focusing on the impacts of systemic racism in the United States found that institutionalized white socioeconomic resources restricts healthcare access to many Americans of color (Feagin, 2014). The researchers involved concluded that oppression of Americans of color and their subsequent lack of access to certain resources was caused mainly by large scale discrimination and racialized framing, ideas that label whites as the superior group. In direct relation to the present research, one study found evidence for the idea that stereotypes are activated automatically if certain categorical cues, such as stereotype related stimuli, are taken in and analyzed (Muller, 2014). In this particular study, the researchers tested their hypothesis related to the automatic activation of stereotypes by priming their subjects with stereotype related stimuli and then determining whether or not that priming caused participants to categorize names as male or female at a faster rate. Another study obtained very similar results and found that participants primed with stereotype activating stimuli were far quicker to apply related stereotypes in certain situations (Wang, 2015). Further research focusing on media priming effects and the activation and application of stereotypes found that stereotypic content within the media acted to prime participants to more readily activate implicit stereotypes, and further concluded that this content can impact implicit stereotypes even if the media content is perceived as invalid (Arendt, 2013). Priming the activation and application of stereotypes may seem confusing and ambiguous, but successful stereotype priming techniques have been used in the past. One of the most effective methods is identifying stereotype trait words, such as “male” or “female”, to prime the use of stereotypes (Wang, 2010). The study that utilized this technique found that
  • 6. MEDIA CONTENT PRIMING AND STEREOTYPE APPLICATION 6 stereotypes, specifically gender stereotypes, could be activated by priming participants with stereotype trait words (male and female). Another study testing the priming effects of words related to self-control on the activation of immigrant stereotypes found that participants primed with words related to self-control had more positive opinions of immigrants than those primed with neutral words (Araya, 2002). While few studies have focused on the specific priming effects of words related to racial stereotypes, there are one or two that provide useful insights. One in particular tested the priming effects of words related to African American stereotypes. In this study, it was found that participants primed with the words “African” and “American” rated an imaginary patient far less favorably on hostility-related issues than participants primed with neutral words (Abreu, 1999). Priming content, however, is not limited simply to words that are connected to a stereotype; it can include a wide range of stimuli such as individuals or symbols from the group that the stereotype acts against as well as any other content that contains aspects of a particular stereotype (Bargh, 1996). Images related to aspects of certain group stereotypes, for example, have been used to prime the activation and application of stereotypes. The results of one study concluded that priming the “Black criminal” stereotype using media images of African Americans looting after hurricane Katrina resulted in lower levels of support for African American hurricane Katrina evacuees that were in need (Johnson, 2009). Finally, it should be noted that there is a distinct difference between stereotype activation and stereotype application. Stereotype activation simply refers to an increase in the accessibility of stereotype related information, while stereotype application refers to using that information in perceptual or evaluative processes (Bargh, 1999). The stimuli that acted to prime stereotypes in the studies
  • 7. MEDIA CONTENT PRIMING AND STEREOTYPE APPLICATION 7 described above, then, resulted in increased stereotype activation which then had a dramatic effect on its application. While research has clearly shown that stereotypes can be activated using stereotype content and word priming techniques, few studies have focused on the priming effects of race related stereotype content found in media sources. It is true that media content such as images have been used for stereotype priming, but results may differ dramatically if the media based stereotype content is more complicated. Further, the activation and application of stereotypes related to discrimination such as symbolic racism has been, for the most part, neglected. Finally, the idea that media content influences the beliefs, and more specifically, the stereotypes we hold is consistent with the social conditioning theory. According to this theory, stereotype formation is largely unintentional and is driven by social forces, such as media and human interaction. Stereotypical ideas about certain groups being presented results in illusory correlations, or the overestimation of negative behaviors associated with minority groups (Smith, 2007). The purpose of the present study is to assess the impact of priming the stereotype that African Americans are criminals using related media content on the application of this stereotype as measured by the Symbolic Racism Scale. Further, this study is a one-way between subjects ANOVA with an independent variable of priming stimuli and a dependent variable of score on the Symbolic Racism Scale. Due to the fact that media content such as photography has been used effectively as priming material in the past, participants will read one of three newspaper excerpts: one that portrays African Americans as criminals, one that is race neutral, and one that portrays African Americans as helpful. After being exposed to their respective news excerpt, participants will fill out a survey measuring the extent to which they agree with symbolically racist statements that pertain directly to African Americans. Based on past research,
  • 8. MEDIA CONTENT PRIMING AND STEREOTYPE APPLICATION 8 it is predicted that participants who read the excerpt that portrays African Americans negatively will have far more discriminatory responses on the symbolic racism scale than those in the other two treatment groups. Further, it is predicted that those that read the excerpt that and portrays African Americans as helpful will be the least discriminatory in their survey responses. Method Participants A total of 41 participants were recruited to participate in this study, all of which were derived from college courses at Western Washington University. Further, 18 (43.9%) males and 23 (56.1%) females participated in this study, and ranged in age from 18-40 (M = 20.22, SD = 3.46). Additionally, the ethnicity of the participants varied significantly, as can be seen by the following distribution that shows the percentage of participants that identified with each ethnicity: 61.0% White, 17.1% Mixed Ethnicity, 9.8% Asian, 7.3% Hispanic, and 4.9% African American. For practical purposes, convenience sampling was used to obtain this particular sample. All participants involved in this study were recruited using the SONA online research system. In addition, all participants took part in this study as part of a requirement for a particular psychology course. Materials and Procedure Within the different experimental conditions, participants will be exposed to one of three vignettes fashioned as a newspaper article: one that contains stereotype related media content that portrays African Americans as criminals, one that is race neutral, and one that contains media content that portrays African Americans positively. The stereotype related media
  • 9. MEDIA CONTENT PRIMING AND STEREOTYPE APPLICATION 9 content in the negative news excerpt will be represented by the African American character in the story incurring violence, while the news excerpt for the third independent variable condition will portray the African American character as a hero. Additionally, a neutral condition exists that does not mention race at all. In this condition, the two characters are referred to as “a man” and “another man.” Each vignette is identical in every way except for the identities of the attacker and the hero, which shifts based on whether or not the African American character is being portrayed negatively or positively. In the vignette portraying the African Americans as criminals, the African American character is the criminal while a Caucasian man is cast as the hero. Finally, the vignette portraying African Americans positively will label an African American man as the hero and a Caucasian man as a criminal. The measure being used for the dependent variable in this study is the Symbolic Racism Scale. This measure assesses the extent to which participants agree with symbolically racist ideas related to African Americans, and as a result more specifically measures participants’ level of discrimination towards African Americans. This measure was comprised of seven selections, all similar to each other in format. A sample selection reads: “Over the past few years, African Americans have gotten less than they deserve.” When responding to selections on this scale, participants were asked to indicate how much they agreed with them by selecting a number from 1 to 4, with 1 meaning strongly agree and 4 meaning strongly disagree. For most of the selections, a higher score indicated a higher level of discrimination towards African Americans. For items 2, 3, 4, and 5, however, the values had to be reverse coded due to the fact that higher scores on these selections indicated lower levels of discrimination towards African Americans. When assigning a score to each participant, the circled values were simply totaled, with a higher score indicating a higher level of discrimination towards African Americans. The Chronbach’s
  • 10. MEDIA CONTENT PRIMING AND STEREOTYPE APPLICATION 10 alpha for this scale was .84, indicating a high level of internal reliability. Finally, 41 participants completed this survey. Procedure Participants were assigned randomly to one of the following three conditions: stimulus portraying African Americans as criminals, race neutral stimulus, and stimulus portraying African Americans positively. Random assignment to conditions was accomplished by assigning each condition to a particular data collection time, making the distribution of participants that signed up to participate in this study random. Each experimental session began with participants filling out and turning in a consent form, which informed them of the risks and benefits of participating in this study. Participants were then told to silently read a short vignette and to not interact with their fellow participants while doing so. After reading the vignette, participants were handed the Symbolic Racism Scale and were told to fill it out silently. After completing the survey, participants then filled out a brief demographics questionnaire. Upon completion of the relevant materials, participants were given a debriefing form and asked to leave the testing area. Results We analyzed the data using SPSS 22.0 at a = .05 for a one-way between subjects ANOVA with a dependent variable of score on the Symbolic Racism Scale and an independent variable of priming stimuli (vignette portraying African Americans as criminals vs. race neutral vignette vs. vignette portraying African Americans as helpful). The means, standard deviations, standard error of means, and confidence intervals are shown in Table 1. We did not find a significant difference in scores on the Symbolic Racism Scale between the different priming
  • 11. MEDIA CONTENT PRIMING AND STEREOTYPE APPLICATION 11 stimuli. F(2,42) = .740, p = .484, SEM = .45 (see Table 2). Since the results of the omnibus F ratio test were not significant, no follow-up analysis was necessary to determine which means differed from which. Discussion The result of the statistical analysis for this study was non-significant, meaning that the mean Symbolic Racism scores of all three stimulus conditions did not differ significantly from one another. More specifically, the results show that scores on the Symbolic Racism Scale, the likes of which signified participants’ level of discrimination towards African Americans, did not differ significantly as a function of the priming stimulus that participants were exposed to. As mentioned previously, there were two alternative hypotheses pertaining to this study. One hypothesis stated that participants in the negative portrayal group would have higher levels of discrimination towards African Americans while the other predicted that participants in the positive portrayal group would have the lowest levels of discrimination towards African Americans. Since the result of the omnibus F ratio test was non-significant, it can be concluded that the results of this study do not support either of the alternative hypotheses. In relation to past research done on stereotype priming, it would appear that the results of this study are not consistent with past findings. One major inconsistency is that the data collected from this study indicates that stereotype priming did not occur after the participants were exposed to the media content. Had priming occurred, it is likely that results similar to those of Johnson (2009) and Abreu (1999) would have been seen. In these studies, exposure to priming stimuli, either stereotype trait words or images from the media, resulted in the activation of certain race related stereotypes. Although the results of the current study may give the impression that priming the stereotype “African Americans are criminals” did not occur, it is
  • 12. MEDIA CONTENT PRIMING AND STEREOTYPE APPLICATION 12 possible that stereotype activation took place in the absence stereotype application. When self- report is being used to measure participants’ opinions on sensitive topics, there is the persistent and very real concern that participants will report a distorted version of their true opinion in order to align with social norms (Fleming, 2012). The findings of this study were also inconsistent with past findings that showed categorical cues acting as priming stimuli for stereotypes. The findings from a study conducted by Muller (2014) showed that stereotypes can be activated automatically when categorical cues are taken in and analyzed. Further, this study concluded that stereotype related stimuli would be impactful enough to increase access to stereotype related information. Had the findings of the current study been consistent with these results, we would have expected the negative portrayal of African Americans in the negative vignette to act as a categorical cue that led to more discriminatory responses on the Symbolic Racism Scale. Additionally, other studies suggest that priming can actually act to lessen the activation of certain stereotypes. Araya (2002) provided evidence for this phenomena by showing that participants primed with words related to self- control had more positive opinions of immigrants than those primed with neutral words. This was the basis of the second alternative hypothesis for the current study. Had the results been consistent with the findings described above, it is likely that participants in the positive portrayal group would have been the least discriminatory in their responses on the Symbolic Racism Scale. Masked priming, and the negative compatibility effect that often time accompanies it, could provide theoretical insight as to why typical stereotype activation and application was not seen in the current study. Masked priming, which is commonly utilized to evaluate phonological and orthographic word recognition, is the act of presenting symbols before or after priming content in order to obscure it. These symbols can either be presented before the target stimuli
  • 13. MEDIA CONTENT PRIMING AND STEREOTYPE APPLICATION 13 (forward masking) or after the target stimuli (backward masking) (Sumner, 2008). Again, while this type of priming is typically seen in studies focusing on simple word priming, it seems reasonable to suggest that the words surrounding the priming content within the vignettes of the current study acted as masking material. While masking does not appear to be harmful when it is appraised at face value, it often times results in counter-intuitive priming effects. Many studies have provided evidence for the idea that masked priming can result in counter-intuitive negative compatibility effects (NCE). When this is seen, priming in the direction opposite of the priming content occurs. More specifically, in simple priming experiments measuring participant reaction time, it is often the case that masked primes result in decreased reaction times as opposed to increased reaction times (Sumner, 2008). Negative compatibility effects are not always seen when primes are masked, however. It is most prevalent in situations where the target is similar to the prime. Thus, in regards to the current study, it is likely that a counter intuitive priming effect was seen for several reasons. First, it is likely that the words surrounding the stereotype related content in the vignettes acted to mask it in both a forward and backward direction. It is also plausible that this masking resulted in a negative compatibility effect (NCE), or a priming effect that was opposite in direction to the priming material. One possible explanation for why this occurred is that the priming material in the newspaper vignettes was very similar in nature to the target material on the symbolic racism scale; in the negative portrayal group, for example, participants read about a crime perpetrated by an African American man and then proceeded to indicate the extent to which they agreed with racist statements directly pertaining to African Americans. While this study was based on past research and designed in a thoughtful manner, there were three notable limitations that can be improved upon in the future. Something that might
  • 14. MEDIA CONTENT PRIMING AND STEREOTYPE APPLICATION 14 have acted as a confound in this experimental study was the appearance and writing style of the newspaper vignettes. The priming stimuli in this study did not have the appearance of an actual newspaper article but instead took the form of a simple Word document. Further, the vignettes were not written by a journalist, and therefore did not reflect the writing style that is typically seen in newspaper articles. While Martin (2008) pointed out that media content portraying African Americans negatively is frequently seen, it is certainly plausible that media content is only impactful on stereotype formation and activation if it appears to be real. Future research utilizing media content as priming material should ensure that the content is as professional and realistic as possible. This may make it more likely that participants interpret what they are perceiving as genuine media content as opposed to experimental material. Another significant limitation in this study was the tendency of participants to read the newspaper vignette and complete the Symbolic Racism Scale as quickly as possible. Rather than taking their time and reading over all of the materials carefully as they were instructed at the outset of the session, an overwhelming majority of the participants involved in this study simply flew through the materials and left the testing environment a mere five to 10 minutes after the beginning the data collection session. In order to eliminate this issue in future studies, participants need to be told that reading through all of the materials at a slow pace is a requirement. Further, the data collected from individuals that refuse to adhere to this requirement should be excluded from statistical analyses in future studies. The third and final factor that acted as a major limitation in this study was the obviousness of the racist statements on the Symbolic Racism Scale. All of the selections on the SRS were implicit in nature, but they could have been obscured further by utilizing statements that did not include words such as “discrimination” and “tension.” The fact that words like these
  • 15. MEDIA CONTENT PRIMING AND STEREOTYPE APPLICATION 15 were present in the SRS made it likely that participants were aware that their level of discrimination towards African Americans was being measured. As mentioned previously, when participants are aware that a sensitive topic, such as racism, is being focused on, they will alter their opinions in order to adhere to what is socially acceptable. In order to avoid having participants fall victim to social desirability in the future, participants should be assessed individually. This would likely diffuse tension and would allow participants to share their opinions in an honest manner. Future studies could also utilize a distraction task such as a puzzle or a math assignment to make what is truly being measured less obvious. Although the results of this study were non-significant, there are certainly numerous implications that can be derived from what was found. One implication based on the results of this study is the idea that perhaps written media is less effective in terms of activating stereotypes than other forms of media, such as images and audio recordings. In fact, research has shown that visual images are more effective as priming stimuli when compared to words. In one study, it was shown that pictures were more effective than words as priming stimuli in experiments focused on implicit memory tasks (Kinjo, 2000). Understanding that images may be more effective than words as priming material can provide insight as to which forms of media should be censored. More specifically, if images, such as those seen on television, are more likely to instill and activate stereotypes, efforts can be focused on limiting peoples’ access to media content that promotes and perpetuates racial stereotypes.
  • 16. MEDIA CONTENT PRIMING AND STEREOTYPE APPLICATION 16 References Abreu, J. M. (1999). Conscious and nonconscious African American stereotypes: Impact on first impression and diagnostic ratings by therapists. Journal Of Consulting And Clinical Psychology, 67(3), 387-393. doi:10.1037/0022-006X.67.3.387 Araya, T., Akrami, N., Ekehammar, B., & Hedlund, L. (2002). Reducing prejudice through priming of control-related words. Experimental Psychology, 49(3), 222-227. doi:10.1026//1618-3169.49.3.222 Arendt, F. (2013). Dose‐dependent media priming effects of stereotypic newspaper articles on implicit and explicit stereotypes. Journal Of Communication, 63(5), 830-851. Baptiste, D. A. (1986). The image of the Black family portrayed by television: A critical comment. Marriage & Family Review, 10(1), 41-65. doi:10.1300/J002v10n01_03 Bargh, J. A., Chen, M., & Burrows, L. (1996). Automaticity of social behavior: Direct effects of trait construct and stereotype activation on action. Journal Of Personality And Social Psychology, 71(2), 230-244. doi:10.1037/0022-3514.71.2.230 Bigler, R. S., & Wright, Y. F. (2014). Reading, writing, arithmetic, and racism? Risks and benefits to teaching children about intergroup biases. Child Development Perspectives, 8(1), 18-23. doi:10.1111/cdep.12057 Carroll, L., & Gonzalez, M. L. (2014). Out of Place: Racial Stereotypes and the Ecology of Frisks and Searches Following Traffic Stops. Journal Of Research In Crime And Delinquency, 51(5), 559-584. doi:10.1177/0022427814523788 Feagin, J., & Bennefield, Z. (2014). Systemic racism and U.S. health care. Social Science & Medicine, 1037-14. doi:10.1016/j.socscimed.2013.09.006
  • 17. MEDIA CONTENT PRIMING AND STEREOTYPE APPLICATION 17 Feagin, J., & Bennefield, Z. (2014). Systemic racism and U.S. health care. Social Science & Medicine, 1037-14. doi:10.1016/j.socscimed.2013.09.006 Fleming, P. (2012). Social desirability, not what it seems: A review of the implications for self- reports. The International Journal Of Educational And Psychological Assessment, 11(1), 3-22. Gordijn, E., Finchilescu, G., Brix, L., Wijnants, N., & Koomen, W. (2008). The influence of prejudice and stereotypes on anticipated affect: Feelings about a potentially negative interaction with another ethnic group. South African Journal Of Psychology, 38(4), 589- 601 Johnson, J. D., Olivo, N., Gibson, N., Reed, W., & Ashburn-Nardo, L. (2009). Priming media stereotypes reduces support for social welfare policies: The mediating role of empathy. Personality And Social Psychology Bulletin, 35(4), 463-476. doi:10.1177/0146167208329856 Kelly, K., & Donohew, L. (1999). Media and primary socialization theory. Substance Use & Misuse, 34(7), 1033-1045. doi:10.3109/10826089909039395 Kinjo, H., & Snodgrass, J. G. (2000). Is there a picture superiority effect in perceptual implicit tasks? European Journal Of Cognitive Psychology, 12(2), 145-164. doi:10.1080/095414400382109 Kite, M. E., & Whitley, B. J. (2012). Ethnic and nationality stereotypes in everyday language. Teaching Of Psychology, 39(1), 54-56. doi:10.1177/0098628311430314
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  • 20. MEDIA CONTENT PRIMING AND STEREOTYPE APPLICATION 20 Table 1 Table of the mean scores on the Symbolic Racism Scale, standard deviations, standard error of the means, and confidence intervals for each priming stimuli 95% Confidence Interval Priming Stimuli M SD SEM Lower Upper Negative Portrayal 13.23 3.17 .88 11.32 15.14 Race Neutral 11.93 2.71 .70 10.43 13.43 Positive Portrayal 12.77 2.74 .76 11.11 14.43
  • 21. MEDIA CONTENT PRIMING AND STEREOTYPE APPLICATION 21 Table 2 ANOVA Summary Table of Symbolic Racism Scores as a Function of the priming stimuli Assigned (Negative Portrayal vs. Race Nuetral vs. Positive Portrayal) Source SS df MS F p Priming Stimuli 12.21 2 6.10 .740 .484 Error 313.55 38 8.25 Total 325.76 40