Study

1. RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
 LECTURE FOUR
Data Collection Tools to Solicit Community
Information…
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2. Data collection tools to solicit community
information
Contents
Prepare tools for data collection
Prepare requests of permission for data collection
Demonstrate a Pre-test of tools to be used in data
collection process
Use tools for data Collection
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3. Data analysis, presentation and
interpretation
 Define the terms Data analysis, Data presentation
and Data interpretation
 Describe methods of analysis data
 Identify techniques for data presentation
 Explain methods of data interpretation
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4. Data analysis
 Refers to examining what has been collected in a
survey or experiment and making deductions and
inferences.
 It means the categorizing, ordering, manipulating,
and summarizing of data to obtain answers to
research questions
 It is the way information and results are
interpreted and assessed
 It involves scrutinizing the acquired information
and making inferences
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5. The purpose of data Analysis
 To answer the research questions and help to
determine the trends and relationships among
variables
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6. Steps in data analysis
Before data collection:
 Determine the methods of data analysis
 Determine how to process data
 Consult statistician(if necessary)
 Prepare dummy tables
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7. Data analysis steps…
After Data collection:
 Process the data
 Prepare tables and graphs
 Analyse and interpret findings
 Consult the statistician again
 Prepare for editing
 Prepare for presentation
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8. Kinds of data Analysis
1. Descriptive analysis
2. Inferential analysis
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9. Descriptive Data Analysis
 Refers to the description of data from a particular
sample and the conclusion must only refer to the
sample.
 It is about summarising the data and describe
sample characteristics
Descriptive data: Are numerical values obtained from
the sample that gives meaning the data collected
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10. Classification of descriptive statistics
1.Frequency distribution-systematic the arrangement
of numeric value from the lowest to the highest or
from the highest to the lowest.
2. Measures of Central Tendency – Mean, Median and
Mode
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11. Classification…
3. Measures of variability/dispersion-
Range
 This is the distance between the highest score and
lowest score in a distribution
Standard deviation,
 The measure that indicates the average to which
the scores deviate from the mean.
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12. Classification…
4.Bivariate descriptive statistics
Derived from simultaneous analysis of two variables to
examine the relationship between variables
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13. Inferential Analysis
 The use of statistical test, either to test for
significant relationships among variables or to find
statistical support for the hypotheses
 Inferential statistics: Are numerical values that
enable a research to draw conclusion about a
population based on the characteristics of the
population sample.
 It is based on the laws of probability
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14.  Data organization
 Refers to orderliness in research data. This is putting
data into some systematic form. Collected data is
known as to be raw information and not knowledge
by itself, it has to be organised in various stages.
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15. From data to knowledge
The organisation from raw data to knowledge is as
follows:
1.From raw data to information: Data becomes
information when it becomes relevant to the problem
identified by the researcher
2.From information to facts: information becomes
facts, when the data can support it. Facts are what
the data reveals
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16. 3. From facts to knowledge: facts therefore lead to
new information, new experience and views
Knowledge is expressed together with statistical
degree of confidence.
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17. Data presentation
 Is the method by which people organize, summarise
and communicate information using variety of tools
such as tables, graphs and diagrams
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18. Techniques of presenting Data
 Data can be presented in text, tables or pictorially
such as graphs and charts. Tables and graphs are
much clear.
 Tables are usually the best way of showing
structured numeric information, where graphs and
charts are better for showing relationships, making
comparisons and indicating trends.
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19. Textual presentation
 This method comprises presenting data with the help
of a paragraph or a number of paragraphs
 Data collected by a researcher/investigator can be
presented using paragraphs or sentences.
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20. Textual presentation
 It involves enumerating important characteristics,
emphasizing significant figures and identifying
important features of data.
 In textual presentation, data are described within the
text.
 In this area skills of language is very important
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21. Textual presentation
Example
 You are asked to present the performance of your
section in the Statistics test. The following are the
test scores of your class:
34 42 20 50 17 9 34 43
50 18 35 43 50 23 23 35
37 38 38 39 39 38 38 39
24 29 25 26 28 27 44 44
49 48 46 45 45 46 45 46
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22. Textual presentation
Solution
 First, arrange the data in order for you to identify
the important characteristics. This can be done in
two ways: rearranging from lowest to highest or
using the stem-and-leaf plot.
 Below is the rearrangement of data from lowest to
highest:
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23. Textual presentation
9 23 28 35 38 43 45 48
17 24 29 37 39 43 45 49
18 25 34 38 39 44 46 50
20 26 34 38 39 44 46 50
23 27 35 38 42 45 46 50
 In the Statistics class of 40 students, 3 obtained the
perfect score of 50. Sixteen students got a score of
40 and above, while 34 got below 40.
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24. Textual presentation
 Example
2012 Population and Housing Census reported that
Dodoma Population had risen to 2,083,588 people of
whom 1,068,614 were females and 1,014,974 Males.
Also 1,762,394 people resided in Dodoma Rural and
321,194 lived in Urban
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25. Tabular Presentation of Data
 A tabular presentation of data is the clear
organization of data into rows (read horizontally)
and columns (read vertically) to facilitate
communication.
 Tables can clearly convey large amounts of
information that would be cumbersome to write in
paragraph form
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26. Tabular Methods of presenting
data
 Frequency Distribution
 Relative Frequency Distribution
 Cumulative Frequency Distribution
 Cumulative Relative Frequency Distribution
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27. Graphical methods for presenting
data
Histogram
Frequency polygon
Cumulative frequency curve or ogive
Bar graph or charts
Pie charts
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28. Histogram
 Is a graph in which classes are marked on the
horizontal axis (X-axis) and the frequencies, relative
frequencies, or percentages are marked on the
vertical axis (Y- axis).
 The frequencies, relative frequencies, or percentages
are represented by the heights of the bars.
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29.  In a histogram, the bars are drawn adjacent to each
other.
 The horizontal axis is commonly labeled by class
marks (midpoints) though class boundaries or class
limits also may be used
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30. Histogram
0
2
4
6
8
10
12
14
16
28 33 38 43 48 53 58
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31. Frequency polygon
A frequency polygon is a line graph that
emphasizes the continuous change in frequencies.
It is an accepted practice to close the polygon at
both ends of the distribution by extending the lines
to the base line (x-axis).
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32. Frequency polygon
10
8
6
4
2
0
Age (in years)
f
12
14
13.5 21.5 29.5 37.5 45.5 53.5 61.5
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33. Interpretation
 Refers to the task of drawing inferences from the
collected facts after an analytical and or
experimental study
 It is a search for broader meaning of research
findings
 Takes the results of analysis, makes inferences
pertinent to the research relations studied, and
draws conclusion about these relations.
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34. Importance of interpretation
 Proper interpretation enables usefulness and utility
of research findings
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35. Methods of data interpretation
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36. Analysis of qualitative data
 Thematic analysis
 Content analysis
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37. Content analysis
 Pragmatic content analysis
 Why something is said. It helps to understand
people’s perceptions and beliefs.
 Systematic content analysis. This classifies signs
according to meaning.
 Designation analysis: determines the frequency with
which certain persons, objects or institutions or
concepts are mentioned. This is simple counting
exercise
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38. Thematic analysis
 Themes refer to topics or major subjects that come
up in discussions.
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39. Research proposal writing skills to
develop research proposal
 Define the concept of research proposal
 Identify steps for developing a research proposal
 Identify research topic
 Prepare a research proposal
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40. Research proposal
 Is a research plan, suggestion or request to implement
a study or a programme
 It is like a blue print of a building plan before the
construction starts.
 It is a suggestion because it persuades people reading it to
do something eg. To fund the study or recommend that
research should be carried out or to recommend the
implementation of the project.
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41. Qualities of an effective research
proposal
 What is being proposed? What the project is about?
 How it will be carried out
 When it will be carried out
 How much it will cost
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42. Steps in developing a research
proposal
 Topic selection
 Title selection
 Developing the proposal
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43. Topic selection
 Topic refers to subject, issues or area under
discussion. The success of the research project
depends on one’s selection of the topic (the subject)
because the researcher’s interest in a particular topic
will sustain the research. He or she will enjoy reading
materials related to that subject and will put time and
efforts into the work
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44. Steps in topic selection
1. Identify what interests or puzzles on in an area of
study. May be social, economic, health, education,
political or cultural issues. Example of puzzling
aspect why people still consume illicit brews despite
the dangers experienced and warnings given by the
government
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45. 2. Identify key words for the topic.
The keywords can include words representing the issue
that has puzzled the researcher. Eg the increase of illicit
brews in the above puzzle.
3.Define the topic: Here the researcher define the topic
by analysing selected keywords keenly. There may be
several topics from key words. Eg on illicit brews there
can be topics on causes, effects or costs etc
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46. 4. Formulate the topic
Eg. The prevalence of illicit brews in Tanzania. After
formulating the topic the researcher should search for
materials relevant to the research topic.
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47. Qualities of an effective research topic
 It is researchable, means that the subject where the
research instruments can be easily formulated and
study population sampled
 Captures the interests of the researcher
 It contributes to the body of knowledge
 It stimulates varied views and interpretations
 It is clear and focussed, that is, it not vague to the
researcher.
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48. Challenges in topic selection
1.Choose a topic that is too wide. The too wide research
area may cause a researcher to fail to limit the scope of
the study eg. The effects of draught. This ma be difficult
to study because the effects and its intensity vary by
region and gender
2. Choose a topic that is too complex. Such research
may require large samples impossible to be done in a
short time. Eg the mushrooming of CSOs in Tanzania.
May be complex in that it requres the clear definition of
“mushrooming”
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49. 3. Poor timing
Most research works have a limited time span for which
data should be collected and presented. Failure to this
may lead to disqualification or penalties.
4. Limited accessibility to materials and respondents
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50. Title selection
 The term “title” refers to the heading, label or tag. The
title of the proposal describes what the study is about.
It is a mini abstract. It portrays a quick summary of
the key idea(s) in proposal. Example of a tiltle. An
assessment of the causes and effects of abortion
on female students in secondary schools and
colleges in tanzania .this title highlights that, it is
about abortion, it can further be seen that respondents
will be female students e.tc
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51. Steps in selecting the Title
1.Identify keywords for the title. Before this stage the
researcher must identify key issues in the topic the
researcher is interested in
2.Reflect on key issues. This means the research should
brainstorm key issues identified. He should attempt to
find dependent and independent variables. For example
if the researcher is puzzled over price increase and
commodity consumption, questions that the researcher
should attempt to answer include;
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52.  Does price increase affect consumption?
 Does price increase influence consumption?
 Does consumption influence price increase?
 How can these issues be linked?
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53. Formulate the title
3.The formulation of the title involves trying to link
the key variables this can be formulated using terms
such as The effect of…, the impact of…, an
assessment of…,
 Eg. The effect of price increase on consumption
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54. 4. Evaluation
 The research has to ensure that the title is clear
and specific. That means independent an
dependent variables are easily identified.
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55. Qualities of a good research title
 It is brief and specific. Eg “the impact of drug abuse
on education”. the specificity and brevity make it easy
to identify the independent and dependent variables
 It should be clear and unambiguous. The title should
not lead to various interpretation. It should be able to
show the relationship between dependent and
independent variables
 It should be in line with the set objectives. The title
should be a brief summary of what the study is about.
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56. Challenges encountered in title
selection
 Choose a title that is not specific. E.g the title “Crimes
in Dodoma Region” what form of crime?
 Writing a title that is too wordy.
 Poorly formulated title (unclear words)
 Lack of consistency. Some titles neither tally with the
research objectives nor statement of the problem or
research methodology applied
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57. Variables
 The term variable is derived from variations.
Variables are attributes or qualities of the cases that
we measure of record. For example if the cases are
persons, the variables could be sex, age, height,
weight, level of education etc. generally the variable
changes it attribute or values under different
situtaions.
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58. Independent variables
 The independent variables are also known as
predictors or explanatory variables. These are the
variable the researcher thinks can explain
variations in dependent variables, in other words
these are the causes. Eg. If the study is on the
impact of price increase on beer consumption in
Tanzania, then the price increase is the
independent variable. This is because it can explain
or affect the increase of decrease in beer
consumption.
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59. Dependent variables
 Usually there is only one dependent variable. It is
the outcome the researcher is attempting to
predict. In the study on the impact of price increase
on beer consumption in Tanzania, beer
consumption, or more specifically its increase od
decrease is the dependent variable. In other words,
the dependent variable “depends” on the
independent. The price increase is the cause of the
fluctuations in beer consumption
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60. Example
 Consider the following example, “The role of
physiotherapy strategy in community-based
rehabilitation of the physically disabled”,
 There are two key words, physiotherapy strategy
and community-based rehabilitation.
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61. Research proposal-Introduction
 The introductory part of the research proposal
serves to discuss the background for the proposed
research, state and define the problem that the
proposal is attempting to address of solve, state the
aims and objectives of the research work and give
an indication on how the work will progress. It is
the opening of the study and that is why it is called
the introduction.
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62. Background of the study
 It refers to the setting or position of the study. It is a
brief overview of what the researchers aspires to
tackle. The background information play the following
role in research
 It helps to clarify what has brought about the need for
the study
 Points out the challenges faced due to the identified
issues
 Indicates the opportunity for improvements
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63. Background of the study…
 Demonstrates the researcher’s view of the research
problem
 It helps to convince the reader that the problem or
opportunity exists and that it should be addressed
 It shows the reader that the researcher knows the
study area s he/she is familiar with what has
preceded.
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64. Statement of the problem
 This refers to an issue of concern that puzzles the
researcher. This may be due to is effect or
consistence despite measures taken. Eg. A
researcher may be puzzled as to why beer
consumption is still high despite the increase in
price. A research may also wonder why school
dropouts is still high despite free education. Such
concerns may result into formulation of a research
questions
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65. Qualities of the effective Background to
the study
 It is brief and specific
 It engages the interest of the reader
 It gives a reader a glimpse of the research problem
 It gives a reader an idea how the proposal is
structured
 The language used is simple and straight forward
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66. Qualities of an effective research
problem
 The research problem is clearly stated. It is concise. It
enables the reader to be aware that there a definite
issue that needs to be solved. In this case the
problems stands out clearly and is easily recognised
 The research problem clearly indicates the urgency of
the research and shows that the research is definitely
needed.
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67. Qualities of an effective research problem…
 The statement of the problem has supporting
evidences
 The language used is simple and objective. This
means no comical, emotional or poetic language used
 The research problem has an impact on the whole
topic being investigated
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68. Steps in writing an effective statement
of the problem
 Reflection
 Identification
 Formulation
 Justification
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