2. Valkanas 1
Whodunit?!
Female empowerment brings to mind a relational power; a power over something else. It
connotes a statuesque, strong woman taking her natural crafts and using them to break free from
enslavement to a subservient, secondary, life. But, why is she statuesque? What constitutes
natural or female crafts? Why is she enslaved? And more importantly whodunit?! Socially
constructed views of gender inhibit women’s role in society, and women – and their bodies, are
often the price of culture wars.
The idea of female empowerment is for women to be liberated from their secondary role
and pick up our rights to life that were thrown by the wayside. Today, liberation is an outdated
term, and current feminists rally for equality if nothing else. But, liberation it still is. It is an
attempt to be a woman as we personally define it rather than as described by femininity. To
identify as a woman is to be different than a man, just as identifying as a man is to be different
than a woman.
Of course, many today believe we can be “post-gender,” this concept of being able to
transcend the social binary and pick the best of previously conceived masculine and feminine
traits to create a futuristic androgynous person. Subverting ideas of gender in the physical sense
is a new and still developing concept, but it is a consistent theme throughout history. Liberation
is to merely desire less pressure on individuals to fit a pre-structured idea of who they ought to
be, so they are free to develop their dispositions and interests. The difficulty is figuring out how
we got here, and restructuring society with a liberated woman.
Think of all the ideas of gender we absorb at a young age and bounce among ourselves at
recess. We tell each other what we aren’t, how much we need to change in order to fulfill our

3. Valkanas 2
roles. Instead of seeing our gender association as enough proof, we see it as a role we are in
danger of losing or a truth in danger of being discounted.
Beyond recess, in our dating years, our concept of identity clashes with our partners’, and
we push each other towards a state of self-awareness and often criticism. Taboos and
presuppositions are formed within communities; blind to the puzzle of social constructs we are
attempting to reconfigure, we mash pieces towards an end that there is no box for.
Psychologist Alfred Adler writes on male and female gender roles in today’s society in
his book Understanding Human Nature. 1
In his chapter on sex he covers the dominance of the
male in today’s culture. He attributes our views on gender to the division of labor, where men are
guaranteed certain privileges. Some argue that women are inherently inferior, physically and/or
morally – with a nod to witch burnings, witches in fairytales, and Helen in the Iliad. They are
seen as spiteful, petty, stupid and generally lesser people.
Adler argues that our society views human value from a business standpoint, but from a
young age women are discouraged from behavior that is seen as masculine, but could help them
attain value in a business world. To escape the feminine associated with being obedient, servile,
and subordinate, Adler argues that women are forced into one of two types – the “masculine”
woman, or the “resigned” woman.2
I agree that there is a reaction to the dominance of the male in today’s culture, but not
that women have no choice but those two roles. Each woman’s reaction is dependent on the
circumstantial power dynamics. If a woman in Saudi Arabia chose the extreme role of the
1
Adler, Alfred. "Sex." In Understanding Human Nature. New York: Greenberg, 1927.
2
Ibid

4. Valkanas 3
masculine woman, she would be severely punished, and to avoid being martyred has no choice
but to accept the resigned role. What Adler doesn’t make clear is that these delineations are
merely external; a woman may appear resigned through her behaviors but still embody
masculine tendencies such as being energetic or ambitious.
From childhood boys and girls are also exposed to women in subservient roles, doing
menial tasks. Mothers tend to be ever-present, while fathers retain a mysterious allure. Of course,
these views hold truer in a traditional household, which is increasingly harder to find in the 21st
century. However, these are the structures that hold up our views on gender worldwide, and the
repercussions of negative gender associations can still be seen, heard, and felt today.
Our actions have greater social meaning, and insensitive comments on dress, behavior
and language enforces our communal search for approval. We are told there’s always something
more we could do to be more feminine; from lipsticks and hair extensions, to more drastic
procedures like breast augmentation and labiaplasty. There are voices speaking out on both ends
of that spectrum. The Dove campaign advocates “real beauty” and companies like young adult
lingerie brand Aerie’s “Real” campaign. On the sobering phenomenon of loving our bodies as
they are without surgery, British artist Jamie McCartney has created “The Great Wall of
Vagina.” 3
These steps toward liberation are about saying that there is no correct way to put the
puzzle of society together and that we are puzzle pieces without strict form; we must be free to
adapt to our societal needs.
3
Mc Cartney, Jamie. "Jamie Mc Cartney - The Great Wall Of Vagina." Jamie Mc Cartney - The
Great Wall Of Vagina. 2012. Accessed May 01, 2014. http://www.jamiemccartney.com/wall-
vagina.html.

5. Valkanas 4
McCartney’s art and advertising campaigns are attempting, as many have before them, to
subvert how we think about gender signifiers relating to the signified person. This is the
philosophy of Structuralism, it embraces the idea that we think of the concept of a thing – like a
chair (the signified), by referencing it with a signifier. The reference to it is most often language.
Feminists rearrange language as it is used contextually to subvert social thought on natural law in
conversation with social constructs. The underlying presupposition behind liberation is that
underlying power structures exist and it is a natural good to overthrow them.
Before structuralist philosophy it was commonly believed that there was natural reason
between the signifier and the signified. People like father of linguistics Ferdinand Saussure
began by recognizing disparities between word choices and amount of words in different
languages. Words were seen as having no positive content, but rather defined by what they are
not, and people as creatures of difference. The structuralist idea of signifiers and signified was
further formed that the meaning in the transaction is differential rather than referential.
Philosophers like Claude Levi-Strauss took Saussure’s linguistic study and expanded the
theories into examining other practices as results of social needs rather than inherent. As we
define words by what they are not, we also define ourselves by what we are not. This was the
concept of binary opposition that social theorist and feminist Simone de Beauvoir worked from
in her book The Second Sex. She said that in our society, and past societies, men view
themselves as the “self” and women automatically become the “other.”4
4
De Beauvoir, Simone. "Interview with Simone De Beauvoir on "Why I Am a Feminist""
YouTube. April 14, 2013. Accessed April 15, 2014.
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=W6hmVO7t_Bs.

6. Valkanas 5
Different forms of Structuralism defined social needs as different concepts. Structural
Marxism attributed our social practices as reactions to economic and class struggles.
Communities aim to minimize struggles through political legislation, economic legislation, social
work, and philanthropy. Both Structural Marxism and Sigmund Freud would agree that a ruling
class with a vision for the betterment of society is best, but the question posed by post-
Structuralists were skeptical if there was truly a structure to unearth. 5
Originally labelled as a structuralist, French philosopher and historian Michel Foucault
rejected some structuralist tenets and became the most important representative of the post-
structuralist movement. He agreed that language and society were shaped by rule governed
systems, but there were two counts on which he disagreed with the Structuralists. Firstly, he did
not think that there were definite underlying structures that could explain the human condition.
Secondly, he thought that it was impossible to step outside of discourse and survey the situation
objectively – that we can’t describe the structures because we are bound by them already. 6
To
examine social structures he traced social power dynamics through history, and like most, found
a wellspring of origination in Ancient Greece.
In his second volume of The History of Sexuality, Foucault studied how Ancient Greek
society viewed sexuality7
. The Greeks believed that pleasures of the body, while not evil, lead
morally weak people into excess and passivity. Bodily pleasures must be a bodily concern
because to fall into excess and passivity is to lose their humanity, thus no more than common
5
Freud, Sigmund, and James Strachey. The Future of an Illusion. New York: Norton, 1975.
6
Gutting, Gary. Foucault: A Very Short Introduction. Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press,
2005.
7
Foucault, Michel. The History of Sexuality: The Use of Pleasure. London: Penguin, 1987.

7. Valkanas 6
animals. They believed that it is our natural need that makes pleasure possible so we must be
responsible in how we maintain the correct levels of need (and consequently pleasure).
This was such a large concern that social status was greatly decided by an individual’s
ethical strength and how well they use pleasure. To be in the public eye gives more authority
over others and thus more reason to improve your life and reputation with self-forming activity.
In order to moderate the use of pleasure and create self-discipline, we must be free to use it. In
the power relations of Athenian society, being passive denies you authority. Homosexual
relations or those between older and younger people was not taboo for being unnatural, but could
be a problem if the individual being sexually objectified (in the literal “made-an-object” sense)
was to become/ or was a social authority figure.
Woman and children were often made to be objects in this society, by their need for
fulfillment outside of themselves. They were not allowed use of their pleasure or to practice
ethical work. Consequently, they were not self-mastered and unable to participate in the polis.
Young boys eventually became men and gain social status by stepping out of this role. Women
were stuck in a state of inner turmoil, in a society based on a discipline that they were not
permitted to practice.
As Ancient Greeks embraced natural law that needed to be molded to be “civilized,”
Foucault points out that as part of a civilized tradition formed by practices we cannot step out of
ourselves to know what is natural or merely accepted. An example of difference in accepted
cultural practices is that of taboos. Common taboos that cultures differ in opinion on are fetish
and promiscuity. Fetishism is the worship of an inanimate object and believing that it has

8. Valkanas 7
transcendent powers. 8
The practice of Fetishism morphed into the sexual realm, and sexualized
certain practices beyond what normally was. Just as different cultures have different words for
common practices, different cultures ascribe certain sexual practices as acceptable or not. Under
Structuralism philosophers and anthropologists deciphered that the acceptability of a fetish
affected the nature of the practice itself. Sexualizing fetishism was related to how it was accepted
by the surrounding culture. If it wasn’t accepted it became taboo, and to be taboo was in itself the
fetish.
As social constructs reflect our societal needs, in a binary fashion, taboos reflect our
fears. Civilizations fear their demise, and subverting common practices reminds them of their
fear. Freud argued that civilization was humankind banding together against nature, and
compromising instinctual pleasures for the security. 9
Incest has the potential to destroy concepts
of family and gender roles that we build as fundamental to society. Promiscuity also has the
potential to undermine relational identity between men and women, shaking off the security
blanket of “civilized” security.
With today’s widespread use of contraceptives for women, many fear the upending of
what seen as an unshakeable, biological truth; sex makes women pregnant. Women have
traditionally been bound by their biology have menstrual cycles, and become pregnant if they
have sex. Today women have the option live without biological binds to menstruation,
pregnancy, or even to live life with the genitalia they are born with. Transgender operations
make it possible to live in a gender neutral world where we consider the possibility of choosing
8
Freud, Sigmund, and Robert Kenny. Totem and Taboo: Resemblances between the Psychic
Lives of Savages and Neurotics. Greentop, MO: Greentop Academic Press, 2011.
9
Freud, Sigmund, and James Strachey. The Future of an Illusion. New York: Norton, 1975.

9. Valkanas 8
our gender. The possibilities for a post-gender future are feared by today’s civilization as it could
unravel what we have known as norm for all of history. We cannot however disregard the new
technological abilities we as a human race have. There is no conceivable reason for women to be
secondary to men, or fit any pre-existing ideas of femininity; it is a whole new world. The
question is how to proceed with the possibility of a post-gendered world on the horizon. In 1927,
Adler proposed that the solution to equality and cohabitation in one world between the sexes was
cooperation instead of competition10
. Simone de Beauvoir might argue that liberation means the
freedom to compete, but cooperation requires the self-discipline the ancient Greeks wisely
thought was the answer to a functioning society.
While men are able to function in society with a greater ability to establish recognizable
worth, women fight to achieve recognition. Almost a century after women were given the right
to vote, and decades after the inauguration of the liberation movement, women are still hitting
the glass ceiling as men soar above it. It’s not a matter of dragging them down, or merely
equality, it is a matter of being free to achieve equal opportunity; not a male dominated society,
but a cooperative society. In Matthew B. Crawford’s book on the inquiry into the value of work
he writes, “Boasting is what a boy does, because he has no real effect in the world. But the
tradesman must reckon with the infallible judgment of reality, where one’s failures or
shortcomings cannot be interpreted away.” 11
A boy is not disciplined and does not have
recognition, but a man that knows his worth is confident and peaceful. Women deserve the
10
Adler, Alfred. "Sex." In Understanding Human Nature. New York: Greenberg, 1927.
11
Crawford, Matthew B. Shop Class as Soulcraft: An Inquiry into the Value of Work. New York:
Penguin Press, 2009.

10. Valkanas 9
opportunity to achieve this peace of mind, and not continue the state of inner turmoil that the
ancient Greeks resigned women to.
In Art
There are 3 women that deserve attention for their reimaging and affirmation of women
today. They are women that have stepped forward to create works that expose the negative
effects of currently instated societal power dynamics and affirm a woman’s right to value.
Judy Chicago
The feminist art movement would not be the same without the work of Judy Chicago. Her
pieces are internationally known and acclaimed. She has been in the trenches of the feminist
movement since the fight for liberation. She is even attributed for coining the term “feminist” art
in 1970, when she started the first feminist art program in the United States at the California
State University, Fresno. 12
Born Judy Sylvia Cohen, and then made Judy Gerowitz by marriage, she ultimately changed
her last name to Chicago. Chicago is the city she was born in and where her unmistakable accent
originates. To celebrate, in her 1970 show at the California State University at Fullerton, she
hung a banner that read, “Judy Gerowitz hereby divests herself of all names imposed upon her
through male social dominance and chooses her own name, Judy Chicago.”13
12
Castro, Fernando R. "Judy Chicago, Linda Nochlin And The Birth of Feminist Art." Literal
Magazine. Accessed April 26, 2014. http://www.literalmagazine.com/english_post/judy-chicago-
linda-nochlin-and-the-birth-of-feminist-art/.
13
Ibid

11. Valkanas 10
Chicago sought to undermine the negative implications surrounding the lack of great
female artists in the 1970’s, to not only point to insufficiently appreciated women but to do what
they could not. She reached notoriety with her piece The Dinner Party, which was featured in the
Brooklyn Museum of Art in the Elizabeth A. Sackler Center for Feminist Art, then toured
internationally. The Brooklyn Museum of Art describes the work:
The principal component of The Dinner Party is a table in the shape of an open
equilateral triangle – an emblem of equality. Each place setting forms a kind of
“portrait of a woman of great historical significance, either actual or mythical, and
is rendered using weaving/ embroidery styles appropriate to the time period and
the individual being honored. 14
Wing One of the table begins with the Primordial Goddess and continues chronologically along
the development of Judaism, early Greek societies, and the Roman Empire- marking the decline
in women’s power. Wing Two depicts early Christianity through the Reformation, and Wing
Three plots the movement toward women’s increased individual expression – from Anne
Hutchinson to Georgia O’Keefe. Chicago’s masterpiece achieved for her notoriety and cultural
power typically reserved for men.
When The Dinner Party was the central piece in the 2007 Global Feminisms exhibit at the
Brooklyn Museum of Art, New York Times critic Roberta Smith responded:
Made by Ms. Chicago and scores of volunteers from 1974 to 1979, this immense
piece is in many ways the perfect storm of second-wave feminism and
14
"Exhibitions: The Dinner Party by Judy Chicago." Brooklyn Museum: The Dinner Party by
Judy Chicago. Accessed May 01, 2014.
http://www.brooklynmuseum.org/exhibitions/dinner_party/.

12. Valkanas 11
modernism: it is lashed together by pride, fury, radiating labial forms and
numerous female-identified crafts, most prominently painted ceramic plates and
needlework. Whatever you think about it as a work of art, it amounts to one-stop
consciousness-raising and historical immersion: an activist, body-centered tribute
to 39 important women. Study ‘The Dinner Party’ close enough and your bra, if
you’re wearing one, may spontaneously combust.15
Chicago takes existing social constructs such as female-identified crafts and invites you to a
dinner party of underappreciated women who have contributed greatly to our civilization.
Wangechi Mutu
Kenya-born Wangechi Mutu is a mixed- media artist now based in Brooklyn. Her collage
work and her impressive education are what set her apart from other aspiring artists. Her work is
bolstered by her background – an International Baccalaureate from United World College of the
Atlantic, a Bachelors of Fine Arts from The Cooper Union for the Advancement of Science and
Art, and a Masters in Fine Art from Yale University School of Art. 16
Her collages take from glossy magazines, anthropology and botany texts, pornography, and
traditional African arts to tell us “not just what cultures have produced but what they’ve
fostered.” In her pieces, she does narrative work with a non-realistic element in fantastical
landscapes, messing with perspective. While they narrate commentary on social and politics,
15
Smith, Roberta. "They Are Artists Who Are Women; Hear Them Roar." The New York
Times. March 22, 2007. Accessed May 01, 2014.
http://www.nytimes.com/2007/03/23/arts/design/23glob.html?pagewanted=all.
16
"Wangechi Mutu." Wangechi Mutu. Accessed April 15, 2014. http://wangechimutu.com

13. Valkanas 12
especially war, she does not use traditional or obvious references to topics. She uses the female
body as a site of “engagement and provocation,” to explore the tensions she alludes to.
Complimentary to Mutu using the female body to create political and social commentary, is
the deceptive flatness of the medium of collage. Mutu argues that she is not pointing to the
flatness of the collage as a representation of the topics she is exploring, but rather a
“multidimensional and multi-perspectival discussions on things like women’s sexuality, imaging
the woman, woman’s ability to control how her image is being portrayed.” 17
The medium of
collage re-images traditional structures, as Mutu says, “I’m cutting into them to find the truth, to
find the humor, to find the sickness. In a way, they’re like little surgeries.”18
Mutu’s survey A Fantastic Journey spans from the mid -1990’s to the present, uniting more
than fifty pieces – including signature large-scale collages, video works, sketchbook drawings, a
site-specific wall drawing, and sculptural installations. First exhibited in October 2013 at The
Brooklyn Museum (alongside Chicago’s The Dinner Party), Mutu encourages audiences to
consider the mythical worlds as places for cultural, psychological, and socio-political exploration
and transformation.
Much of Mutu's work has been concerned with the countless forms of violence and
misrepresentation visited upon women, especially black women, in the contemporary world. Her
work looks into the perversions of the body and mind that result from active oppression of
women. The result of collaging from a range of sources is works that serve to rebuke
17
Buck, Louisa. "Articles/Artist Interview Wangechi Mutu and Her Warrior Women." The Art
Newspaper. March 19, 2013. Accessed May 01, 2014.
http://www.theartnewspaper.com/articles/Artist-interview-Wangechi-Mutu-and-her-warrior-
women/28966.
18
Ibid

14. Valkanas 13
conventions of aesthetics and ethnography, and eroticism that underpin those sources. Instead,
her pieces depict an existence riotously free of biological determinism or psychological
conditioning.
Sophia Wallace
Like Simone de Beauvoir, Brooklyn-based Sophia Wallace explores “alterity,” and how
“otherness is constructed visually on the gendered, sexualized, racialized body.” Unlike de
Beauvoir, Wallace holds a BA from Smith College and an MA in Photography from NYU and
the International Center of Photography. Wallace reached notoriety in the art world when she
branched out from photography and developed the Cliteracy project. The project addresses
“citizenship and body sovereignty” using the medium of text-based objects, unauthorized street
installation, and interactive sculptural forms. 19
Wallace’s focus on how power is represented and normalizes itself became a movement, and
she has presented it in major exhibitions internationally. The breakthrough project that drew
attention of international media sources was the Cliteracy project. Cliteracy is a mixed media
project that explores the paradox that is “the global obsession with sexualizing female bodies in a
world that is illiterate when it comes to sexuality.” 20
The project points to the bias of the phallic
as neutral that saturates cultural institutions in science, law, philosophy, politics, mainstream and
feminist discussion, and the art world. Much like Mutu, Wallace sees how important it is to
reclaim the female body as a site of empowerment, especially to renounce the construction of
female sexual bodies as “passive vehicles of reception defined by lack.”
19
Wallace, Sophia. "SOPHIA WALLACE." SOPHIA WALLACE Conceptual Artist Based in
NYC. Accessed April 15, 2014. http://www.sophiawallace.com/.
20
Ibid

15. Valkanas 14
Wallace embodies her message in four sub-projects; CLITERACY 100 Natural Laws, a
billboard, street art, and The Clit Rodeo. 100 Natural Laws is an imposing 10 by 13 feet, a wall
of side by side posters with text. The posters have facts about the female genitalia that remind the
audience that female is not the inverse of man, and neither is their anatomy. She seeks to expose
the bigger problem of the female body, false information. The idea of Wallace’s laws is that by
revealing the clitoris as separate from male and that it is powerful and pleasure-creating, we can
redefine social power dynamics and taboos. Reminiscent of Foucault, Wallace emphatically
preaches that “power shapes knowledge, often through the use of the visual, for the purpose of
rectifying hierarchy.”
The Billboard stands along a highway at roughly 35 by 10 feet. On it is boldly written,
“Democracy Without Cliteracy Phallusy.” Embodying Wallace’s playful approach, the pun
reinforces the importance of her message; things are not right – “Democracy,” until the truth
about the female body is out.
Focusing on the slightly comedic “phallusy,” Wallace created another new phrase – the
illCLITERACY epidemic. Her unauthorized street installations take the form of street art with
both symbols of the clitoris and text. The text is catchy, with phrases like “ain’t no half steppin’
to the clit” or “Don’t tread on my clit.” 21
The most interactive and playful of Wallace’s work is the Clit Rodeo. Working with sculptor
Kenneth Thomas, they constructed it in 2013 and exhibited it in Wassaic, NY. The bonding
factors between Wallace and Thomas’ work was their mutual desire to disrupt “narrow, binary
21
Ibid

16. Valkanas 15
divisions.” Along with the ride-able gold clit, collaborators contributed performances and
choreography, coming together to create an interactive art movement.
Moving Forward with Art
In the fight for liberation and equality, feminist art – especially that done by women, has
power. When women’s bodies have been the subject of art for all of conceivable art history,
feminist art has power over the influence that art has on the culture by reimaging how they are
depicted. In this case the signifier is the art, and the signified is the reflected power dynamic in
our society.
Wallace draws our attention to the clitoris as a symbol of women’s autonomy, Mutu points to
the female form and makes us look at the painful results current power dynamics have wrought,
and Chicago shines a light on the truly great women as proof that women are somebodies. As
each woman created their works, it was both a personal and political exercise. We the audience
interact with the art, make it personal, and take it with us as a new part of ourselves When
women lead in a power dynamic over their craft, form mimics content and they gain power over
a piece of culture. This is especially true when artists like Wallace, Mutu, or Chicago use
accessible existing symbols like art, language, or even the female body. Mutu’s collages may
remind us of an eerie science-fiction movie, but the way these women compel us from within
only speaks to the efficacy of art and the power of liberation.
Both the Ancient Greeks and Freud wrote that pleasure must be disciplined. In light of
classical ideals, Wallace’s Cliteracy project is downright hazardous. The Greeks and Freud
feared for the unraveling of civilization when instinctual desires went unguarded, but specifically
they feared the demise of existing structures of civilization. Human potential has reaches new

17. Valkanas 16
heights daily and existing ideals are upended little by little until what we have today looks
nothing like the society our parents grew up in. Our responsibility is to rationally look at our
potential and compromise to a social structure that enforces a balance between cooperation and
liberty.

18. Valkanas 17
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19. Valkanas 18
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20. Valkanas 19
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