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Erek Cyr
Dr. Claudia Liebeskind
November 19, 2015
Japan, Korea and India
From Tradition to Modernity
Life in traditional Asian societies like that of Japan, India and Korea, was
challenging, especially as these nations began the process of modernization either by
force or by ambition. At different times and in different ways, these societies shifted their
focus from a family oriented society, to a society that supported a stronger, more
modernized central state. Modernization within these countries presented a double
edged sword that yielded many problems as well as solutions as time progressed.
Japan was one of the only Asian countries that was not colonized by a Western
power; rather, it became a colonizing power itself. China, Korea, the Philippines and the
Dutch East Indies (Indonesia), are just a few areas that fell victim to Japan’s imperialist
regime. A look in a different direction gives a better view of what Japan was really like
during the time period of the Showa era (1926 to 1989). This direction is pointed inward,
to the Japanese hamlet of Yokogoshi, and one its rural citizens, Toshié, who lived during
this era; and felt both the burdens that the state imposed on her and her family1 and
also the gradual easing of these tensions that resulted in a more prosperous existence
that the Allied Occupational forces provided after Japan’s defeat in World War II2.
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Toshié was born in the first year of the Showa era, which is the year of accession
of the emperor Hirohito. She lived until the end of emperor Hirohito’s reign, which
marked the end of an era that lasted a sum of sixty-three years. Historians usually state
that the years leading up to 1945 were described in terms of war, the state, militarism,
and domestic terrorism; indeed, it was a period correctly described as one of poverty
and endless, back-breaking labor3. Then there were the years that followed 1945 which
were described as a period of prosperity, a time where Japanese citizens enjoyed
increased leisure as a result of the acquisition of labor-saving household appliances.
However, it would take longer, about two decades, for Toshié and her family to feel the
economic effects of this time period
Toshié’s living conditions, leading up to the war and two decades thereafter, were
stark at best. She and her family lived in a cold, dark house in a region that was known
for its bitter winters4. Even minimal comforts that would usually go unnoticed to the more
affluent regions of the world, were denied to Toshié and her family; to wit, regular meals
of variety, warmth of any kind on a cold day, privacy in a house too small for its
numerous residents5, to name a few. Toshié’s parents had it tough as they attempted to
make enough cash to barely break even. Endless work in the fields cultivating rice and
other crops such as mulberry6 (for their silk worms7), proved a meager existence that
took up much of the day and really took a hit during the Great Depression. Toshié, even
into adulthood, assisted her parents in any menial tasks that would assist the family
financially. Toshié's life was one that was subservient to her parents.
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Toshié was born into a tenant family, which was a family that could not afford land
to cultivate and ended up renting land from the privileged Landlord class. Toshié’s father
would pay the landlord with a large portion of the crops that he harvested, which would
continued the feudal process of unequal economic disparity for the majority of Japanese
citizens. If being stuck in the endless yearly cycle of poverty, with no end in sight was
difficult to bear, the war against China in 1937, would prove to be devastating to
Toshié’s family for three reasons, first and foremost, Toshié’s brothers, as military
conscripts, would lose their lives in this conflict8; second, Toshié’s father would lose his
male heir to the family; and third, it also meant that there would be two less helpers in
sharing of the grueling tasks on the farm.
The ‘calling’ of military conscripts, as dictated by the state for the invasions of the
aforementioned countries, was a well thought out, albeit evil, plan because the
foundation of that calling was integrated into the very fabric of Japanese traditional
society. That foundation was two-fold, the calling of conscripts as an obligation to the
state and emperor (filial piety); and worse, the calling (grooming), of school children in
what would eventually lead to the war effort. This calling came in the seemingly innocent
guise of filial piety. After being taught the heroic efforts of Japan’s martial past, grade
school children heard the following, “In order to become a good Japanese, you must
always pay reverence to the emperor and empress, revere the imperial shrines, and
display a spirit of devoted loyalty and patriotism,” followed by, “You must show filial
loyalty to your parents…”9 The goal of the children’s education was not only to better
their lot in life; it was also to make them obedient members of the national community.
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Whether that national community was harmonious with the outside world, is irrelevant, if
this statement is to be taken literally.
The historical analysis10 of prosperity beginning at the end of the war in 1945, is
mere conjecture, which disputes Toshié’s own experience. The tenant movement and
the subsequent Occupation-mandated land reform, did little to quell the powerful
landlord class. However, through education and technology, the tenant movement was a
defining moment in Japanese history in that it marked the rise to “political
consciousness of the tenant farmer class.”11 Being aware of the political issues allowed
tenants to challenge landlordism in rural Japan. As a result of the Occupation-mandated
land reform, Toshié’s family only received 0.1 hectare, a meager sum.
The “bright Showa” came to Toshié, and those of her class, about two decades
after WWII. The Allied Occupation had paved the way to an unprecedented era in
Japanese history. The success of this era is largely due to the increase of technology;
but with success, also comes change. One example of technology and its
consequences is farm mechanization. Previously only obtained by the ultra elite,
farming machines were now available in the countryside via mass marketing strategies
and lower prices. This meant more crops yielded by fewer people. If few people were
needed on the farm, then they could outsource their talents in pursuit of more cash for
the family; either in increasing their value through the means of education in the larger
cities, or the procurement of another job. The consequence to this, of course, is the
migration of rural citizens to the urban cities, causing overpopulation and leaving the
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family structure behind, both literally and figuratively.
Toshié married, had a child, and lived a life with many luxuries that were never
even dreamed of in her childhood. Her father, Kurakichi, never saw this era, instead, his
entire life was one subjected to the heavy burdens that the state imposed on him.
Toshié’s account of him indicated that he was a gentle soul and that he handled these
burdens with grace; while having his family, his village and his emperor in mind. Male or
female, his lineage would only survive through Toshié.
Korea’s egregious relationship with Japan during the occupation caused
considerable turmoil for its citizens. One account revealed during the occupation tells
the story of a boy that was led by his father, a well respected citizen, to an
administrative building occupied by Japanese forces. One of the administrative
functions of this location was to assign Korean villagers Japanese names. By replacing
their given names with Japanese ones, Japan, in a sense, deprived Korean citizens of
the sacred ties to their ancestors. By losing the names their ancestors had and passed
on to them, they effectually lost their identity. The account is punctuated with the boys
grandfather kneeling and crying in the snow before their ancestors’ grave sites, and
saying, “We are a disgrace to our family. We bring disgrace and humiliation to your
name. How can you forgive us.”12 The next scene delineated the father looking at his
son and saying, “I am ashamed to look in your eyes. Someday, your generation will
have to forgive us.”13 At the time the boy didn’t understand and was confused, cold,
hungry and he wanted to go home. Fed up, he yelled, “what good is this going to do?”
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The father replied, “Take a good look at this. Remember it. Don’t ever forget this day14…
Someday, you will understand.”15 The father recognizing that they were forsaking their
sacred past, picked a Japanese name suited for the occasion, Iwamoto, which means
“Rock-Foundation.”16 In a sense, the father was saying, “today we lost something dear
to us, and now is the time to start something new.”
Up until the late twentieth century, many Koreans that lived in rural areas
supported themselves through an economy based on agriculture. Their seasons and
holidays were based on the agricultural calendar and their livelihood depended largely
on the success or failure of their crops.17 Although citizens held on to their ancestral
ties, economic modernization through the Saemaul Movement made extraordinary
advances to Korea’s economy and greatly aided citizens in the countryside, albeit, with
some unintended consequences.18
The Saemaul Movement, was President Park Ching-hee’s response to the criticism
that his administration was paying too much attention to industrialization at the expense
of the farm sector, which was continuing to languish in poverty.19 Park administrations
and villages were given cement for community purposes, irrigation, sanitation,
community buildings, small bridges and cement tiles to replace thatched roofs. The
investment of farm chemicals (pesticides and nitrogen fertilizer); plastics (to control
pests and protect crops); the small engine gasoline and most importantly, the
development of a new kind of high yield rice, drastically increased the countries annual
grain output and enabled the growing population to retain rice as a staple food.20 Family
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planning events also took center stage as the government attempted to convince
families, against their strong ancestral ties, from continuing to have children until giving
birth to a male.
The Saemaul Movement in all its splendor, put Korea in the international spotlight
as a success. With that said, the success through modernization also divided Korea’s
most sacred institution, the family. Family life changed against the expectations of its
older generations.21 With the technological advances listed above, and its desire to
increase technology even further, the government of Korea not only encouraged its
young to gain an education in the larger cities, but it also encouraged them to work in
other countries in order to learn of different technological advances not known locally.22
Rural families also believed in the value of education, in so far that it allowed students to
gain better jobs and receive better pay; however, rural families also had the expectation
that their sons, who’s success would bring pride to the whole family, would return home
after their education in order “to carry on the family,” by means of supporting their
parents in their old age and, for the sons in particular, the performance of ancestral
rituals.23
Finally, marriage also took a turn towards modernity. There were no more arranged
marriages, there were now “love marriages.” Although the parents had the final say of
who they can marry, the modern concept of education, independence, and modern
ideas have all revolutionized the customs surround marriage, redirecting the focus to
the bride and groom instead of keeping on the union of two family lineages.
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With all the advances that Korea has made, both technologically and economically;
the status of its women has not advanced as quickly. Women often lived in seclusion in
the “inner rooms” of their houses, never to be seen and certainly never to be touched by
men outside the family.24 Although this may appear oppressive, women still wielded
considerable domestic influence and power in the home. Propaganda in traditional
times, in the form of Korean literature, reinforced the Confucian ethic of women’s
chastity, by the telling of stories with the central theme of “preserving honor at all
costs.”25 A mere generation ago, women were governed under the Confucian ideology
which held women to what is called the “three submissions”: to submit to their father,
then their husband, and finally their sons.”26 Korea today presents incomparably more
opportunities to women than it did a generation ago.27 The education of women from the
1880s kickstarted a powerful reform movement that demanded better protection under
the law and more freedom for the individual. Women, who benefitted from this reform in
the latter part of the twentieth century, were able to obtain jobs outside the home without
losing the respect of the community.
About 3,0000 miles West of Korea lies another fascinating country. European’s in
particular had their eyes fixed on the prospects of this land for centuries….India. As
early as 15th century, the Portuguese traveler, Vasco de Gama, went on a quest around
the horn of Africa, towards India, with the intentions of getting a better deal on spices
and with the prospect of spreading Christianity to the empire. After defeating the
Portuguese, the Dutch left India for the East Indies, leaving a power vacuum for the
British, who were involved with India as early as 1599 and as late as 1947, India’s
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independence from the United Kingdom. The period of 1857 until 1947 are of particular
interest due to an autobiography by Prakash Tandon, Punjabi Century, which tells the
story of his family that lived through the British imperial period after the Sikh Wars and
the Mutiny.
During this period of occupation, Mr. Tandon noted that the families in India
viewed the British occupation differently. The older generations had mixed feelings, the
males liked the opportunities that the British provided; while the women; however, were
reluctant to change and instead, held unto the traditions of their ancestors. Mr. Tandon
noted, “Father must have tried in the early years of married life to expose mother to
English influence..however, it could not have lasted long.28 Generally speaking,
throughout the process of change, our women showed enough attachment to tradition
to prevent the change from swamping old values. Our fathers changed rapidly, our
mothers slowly, and between them my generation managed to learn the new without
entirely forgetting the old.”29 There appears, in some instances, to have been a
reluctance to modernize. Although the women instinctively knew that the occupying
force, Britain, may have had some good intentions; they also knew that to get too close,
would mean that they would lose their ties with their own ancestral heritage.
Education was extremely important during this time in India. Gaining an
education meant not only securing a good job, it also meant elevating one’s standing in
society and most of all, giving the entire family a good name. Those interested in school
would study with with dedicated obsession. There are stories of boys who ‘mortified’
themselves into the learning process, “To prevent sleep, they would tie their top knot
with a strong to the ceiling so that each time they nodded with sleep they woke up in
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pain when the hair was pulled up with a jerk.”30 Mr. Tandon’s uncle was the first to pass
matriculation and he became a well respected lawyer. His father, being quite fond of the
English, worked very hard in school in order to procure a great position under them as
an engineer building and maintaining irrigation canals.
Canals helped irrigate the fields and was considered the “lifeblood” to farmers. In
fact, due to the Indians’ willingness to learn, they incorporated these technologies into
their landscape which greatly boosted the Indian economy. Many rose from the lowest
ranks through sheer integrity, hard work and self teaching.31 Although education
elevated the status of the successful student, there were still limitations to how far an
Indian could rise. There were three grades of service, similar to that of the Hindu castes,
first, there was the British born (senior-most); then the locally born British (middle-
grade); then there were the Indians, (junior-grade).32 Mr. Tandon’s father accepted this
fate for the fact that it was the initiative of the British officers who aided in developing
the country and services and it seemed only right that they should be the leaders.33 The
problem came when the trainees became proficient in their jobs and required an
elevated status.34 These issues combined with other scenarios, would steadily build to
allow for India’s independence in July of 1947.
The independence gained from Britain’s withdrawal from India, and the
development of Pakistan caused considerable turmoil. Muslims wanting their own form
of government while Indians, a clear majority, did not want to be ruled by the Muslim
minority. Mass migrations caused considerable concern, muslims in India headed into
Pakistan and Indians in the Punjab, heading to India. One story told of a train full of
2,000 refugees heading to India from Pakistan, were slaughtered. The home that Mr.
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Tandon and his family grew up in was no longer open to him as he recounts a statement
by his friend, “As the truck passed the barrier into India, they looked back at Pakistan,
their homeland which did not want them.”35 The ancestral ties that home brings elevates
despair when one is no longer able to go there, even worse, when one is not even
wanted.
Although Japan, Korea and India have different languages, customs and
cultures; there is still one thing that is central despite their differences, that is family.
This seemingly fragile, single thread has been altered by, technology, war, deceit and
modernization; but still hangs in the balance as a proof that there really is a power over
anything humans can throw at it. The value of family is binding across all cultures and
has stood the test of time, something even modern empires have yet to do.
Bibliography
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