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PLANET EARTH AS A SYSTEM THAT OPERATES LIKE A LIVING
ORGANISM
Fernando Alcoforado*
This article aims to demonstrate the functioning of the Planet Earth as a system and to
present how the Planet Earth behaves according to the Gaia Hypothesis formulated by the
scientist James Lovelock, who describes the Earth as a system that operates as a living
organism. System is an integrated set of interrelated and interdependent components that
seek to achieve a goal. A system is a set made up of organized components that interact
in such a way that the properties of the set cannot be fully deduced from the properties of
the parts. Real systems comprise exchanges of energy, information or matter with their
surroundings. General Systems Theory is the interdisciplinary study that seeks to identify
the common properties of these entities. Its development began in the middle of the 20th
century, with the studies of the Austrian biologist Ludwig von Bertalanffy. It is
considered as a metatheory (theory of theories) that starts from the abstract concept of
system to find rules of general value. There is, within the concept of system, that of
subsystem, which is a system within another system that is larger than the previous one.
Furthermore, this larger system may be part of a supersystem.
1. Planet Earth as a system
The planet Earth is a system that is part of a larger system that is the solar system that is
characterized as a group of planets, small celestial bodies, natural satellites, etc., that are
under the gravitational domain of a star like the Sun (Figure 1). In turn, the solar system
is part of a larger system that is the Milky Way Galaxy (Figure 2) which, in turn, is part
of a larger system that is the Universe (Figure 3). The Earth is an open system because it
establishes energetic exchanges with the Universe, suffers the gravitational effect of the
Moon (Figure 4), the Sun and the planets of the solar system, receives energy emanating
from the Sun, which is used in several of its biological processes and geologic and loses
energy to space as heat. The Earth's external mechanism is driven by energy emanating
from the Sun. Solar heat energizes the oceans and atmosphere and is responsible for our
weather conditions. Rain, ice and wind erode mountains and shape the landscape, while
landforms change the climate.
Figure 1- Planets of the solar system
Source: https://www.infoescola.com/astronomia/planetas-do-sistema-solar/

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Figure 2- The Solar System in the Milky Way
Source: https://blogs.ne10.uol.com.br/mundobit/2017/05/19/sistema-solar-esta-em-endereco-seguro-na-
via-Láctea-dizem-cientistas-da-usp/
Figure 3- Universe seen from Earth
Map of the Universe observable from Earth with the notable astronomical objects known today. Celestial
bodies appear enlarged to appreciate their shape.
Source: https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Universo
Figure 4- How the Earth-Moon System works
Source: https://moonblink.info/Eclipse/why/solsys

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The Earth system is composed of its internal (Figure 5) and external (Figure 6) structures.
The Earth's internal structure is formed by the lithosphere or crust, mantle and the inner
and outer cores [1].
Figure 5- Internal structure of planet Earth
Source: https://www.todamateria.com.br/litosfera/
The Earth is governed by thermal energy confined internally during its formation. This
inner heat influences movements in the mantle and core, providing energy to melt rocks,
move continents, and lift mountains. The crust is a thin layer about 70 km thick. It
contains materials that are relatively light and have low melting temperatures. Most of
these materials are formed by elements of silicon, iron, aluminum, magnesium, calcium,
sodium and potassium combined with oxygen. The mantle is located between the Earth's
crust and outer core with temperatures reaching 2,000°C. This region forms the most solid
part of the planet. The layer covers depths ranging from 70 to 2,891 km and consists of
rocks with intermediate density, mostly composed of elements such as oxygen,
magnesium, iron and silicon. Between the mantle and the inner core is the outer core,
which is made up of iron and other heavy elements, such as nickel, and is in a liquid state.
It is in this region that the Earth's magnetic field is formed, due to the movement of the
fluid. The inner core has the same chemical composition as the outer core with a
temperature of around 6,000°C. In this central portion, it is solid and goes from a depth
of approximately 5,150 km to the center point of the Earth (6,731 km). The reason for the
inner core to be solid is the pressure in this region, which is very high and prevents the
iron from melting [1].
The external structure of the Earth is constituted by the lithosphere, atmosphere,
hydrosphere and biosphere [1].
Figure 6- External structure of planet Earth

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Source: https://ensinomedio01.wordpress.com/7_estrutura_externa/
The lithosphere corresponds to the Earth's crust. Lithosphere or crust is the solid surface
layer of our planet, consisting of rocks, soil and landforms. Above the lithosphere are the
gaseous (atmosphere) and liquid (hydrosphere) layers. The set of all ecosystems on planet
Earth forms the biosphere. The biosphere, atmosphere and hydrosphere are
interdependent. The climate and water cycles between the atmosphere and the
hydrosphere make up the biosphere. Atmosphere is the gaseous layer that surrounds our
planet, accompanying its movements and united to it by the action of gravity. This
structure is formed by a mixture of gases that make up the air and is essential for the
existence of animals and plants that inhabit the Earth. As it acts to maintain the planet's
thermal balance, the atmosphere provides the oxygen necessary for breathing, allows the
transmission of sound, combustion and absorbs much of the radiation emitted by the Sun.
This is very important, as only the energy necessary for life reaches the earth's surface.
Most of the atmosphere is composed of nitrogen (78%), followed by oxygen (21%) and
carbon dioxide (1%). Only a small part of its composition contains water vapor and other
gases. It is where we live, build our societies, grow our food and carry out our economic
practices. Hydrosphere is the Earth's water layer, consisting of rivers, lakes, oceans and
seas, in addition to the present humidity that also influences the climate. The existence of
water on our planet is of vital importance for the maintenance of life. Biosphere is the
layer of life, involving all beings that inhabit our planet, which obviously includes human
beings. The biosphere can only exist from the combination of atmosphere and
hydrosphere.
On Earth there are two main sources of energy: an external energy source and an internal
energy source. The external energy source that most directly influences the Earth is the
energy radiating from the Sun. Solar energy activates atmospheric movement, drives the
water cycle, provides the heat needed for chemical reactions that affect surface rocks,
maintains a temperature consistent with the maintenance of life and is used by living
beings through photosynthesis. The internal energy source concerns the heat that
emanates from the inner and outer core of the planet Earth, which contribute decisively
to the state of the rocks, as well as to the formation of the magma found in the layer of
the terrestrial mantle, which is the intermediate layer and has as characteristic of its
influence on important processes of terrestrial dynamics, such as volcanism and tectonics.
The terrestrial inner core is responsible for the formation of the terrestrial magnetic field
that plays the role of protecting the Earth from the solar winds, since, when they reach
the terrestrial magnetic field, these particles are ionized and ricocheted.
It should be noted that the Earth's magnetic field is extremely important for maintaining
life and communication on Earth, as it manages to prevent the entry of solar particles,
which, if not deflected by it, would damage the ozone layer, unprotecting the Earth from
ultraviolet radiation and making communication difficult through radio waves, television,
internet, among others. In addition, several animals migrate or orient their needs based
on the Earth's magnetic field, such as pigeons. The Earth's magnetic field also allowed
the invention of compasses, spatial location tools that, in the past, contributed to maritime
expansion. Recent research reveals that the Earth's core has been cooling more rapidly in
recent years [2]. Cooling of the Earth's core has been occurring since its formation billions
of years ago, but heat loss has increased considerably in recent times. This is what informs
a publication of the American scientific journal Earth and Planetary Science Letters.
Researchers from the Swiss Federal Institute of Technology in Zurich (ETH) and the

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Carnegie Institution for Science in the United States have discovered that the Earth's core
is cooling faster than expected.
It is important to note that when the Earth's core cools, the Earth's magnetic field, essential
for life on our planet, will be greatly weakened or disappear altogether. Solar radiation
with charged particles emitted by the Sun will hit us directly and will deteriorate our
atmosphere. Water is only liquid under normal conditions of temperature and pressure.
Without the atmosphere, air pressure drops and temperature rises because of direct
exposure to solar radiation. This would increase water evaporation, and over time the
oceans would be reduced to lakes, which would become ponds. That is, water would be
very scarce if it did not disappear completely. The Earth would then become a rocky ball,
without water, without air and under extremely high temperatures. The loss of heat in the
Earth's core can make the Earth cool as a whole, transforming it into a totally cold,
inactive planet with no possibility of life. The Earth would then become a rocky ball,
without water, without air and under extremely high temperatures, something similar to
what Mars is today. It is the phenomenon of entropy, which is equivalent to the loss of
energy, to the disorder of the Earth system.
Like every system, planet Earth has feedback and control mechanisms, which is the set
of responses produced by the system in the face of existing imbalances. Earth has, for
example, its own feedback mechanism and temperature-regulating control. It is through
the feedback and control mechanism that occurs, for example, the regulation and control
of the temperature of planet Earth. Thanks to this control, it is possible to guarantee the
harmony of the subsystems that make up planet Earth and, consequently, homeostasis,
that is, the balance of the internal environment of the Earth system. Earth's climate has
undergone many major changes, from global volcanism to ice ages, some locally induced,
others the result of dramatic changes in solar radiation, yet life has remained ever-thriving
over the past 3.7 billion of years. A new study has found an explanation for this incredible
resilience of life on Earth. Our planet has its own "stabilizing feedback" mechanism that
has been working over hundreds of thousands of years to bring the climate back up when
it reaches its limit, keeping global temperatures within a stable and habitable range [3].
How does planet Earth manage to keep global temperatures within a stable and habitable
range? This is done through a mechanism called "silicate weathering," a geological
process whereby the slow and steady weathering of silicate-rich rocks involves chemical
reactions that ultimately remove carbon dioxide (CO2) from the atmosphere and directs
it into ocean sediments, trapping gas in rocks [3]. Scientists have long suspected that
silicate weathering plays an important role in regulating the Earth's carbon cycle that may
provide a geologically constant force to keep carbon dioxide and global temperatures in
check. Constantin Arnscheidt and Daniel Rothman of MIT based their study on
paleoclimate data that record changes in global average temperatures over the last 66
million years. They then applied a mathematical analysis to see if the data would reveal
any characteristic patterns of stabilizing phenomena that could control global
temperatures on a geological time scale. They found that, in fact, the data show a
consistent pattern in which Earth's temperature oscillations are damped out over
timescales of hundreds of thousands of years. The duration of this effect is similar to the
timescales on which silicate weathering appears to operate. These researchers were the
first to use real data to confirm the existence of a stabilizing feedback, whose mechanism
is probably silicate weathering. This stabilizing feedback would explain how Earth has
remained habitable despite the dramatic weather events of the planet's geological past,
scientists say. Arnscheidt claims that through this stabilizing feedback it will be possible
to cool today's global warming which will not be fast enough to solve our current global

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warming problems because it will take hundreds of thousands of years for this to happen
[3].
A new study published in the journal Nature Climate Change presents good news about
a possible climate feedback loop [4]. Researchers observed microbial activity and soil
dynamics over a long period of time, and were able to see how microorganisms might
respond to climate change in the real world. What is climate feedback? Climatic feedback
is a process that amplifies or reduces the climatic force, which can be positive or negative.
Positive climate feedback is anything that adds heat to the atmosphere and negative
feedback is processes that offset warming. For example, the oceans and land absorb CO2
as part of the carbon cycle. Soils are by far the largest reservoir of organic material on
Earth, containing more than three times the carbon currently present in the atmosphere as
carbon dioxide. Microorganisms in the soil are responsible for digesting dead organic
material, converting it into greenhouse gases such as carbon dioxide (CO2). These
microorganisms become more active with warm temperatures, which has led to concern
that higher temperatures associated with climate change could lead to a vicious cycle,
where warm soils lead to more active microorganisms, which cause even more emissions
of greenhouse gases [4].
In this study it was found that, even after prolonged heating, microorganisms still rapidly
released carbon when heated, so they did not adapt to higher temperatures. However, it
was also found that there were far fewer microorganisms in warm soils. So, just as carbon
was lost from the soil under heating, the amount of microbial biomass also decreased,
which led to a perceived slowdown in microbial activity over time. Scientists combined
experimental findings with mathematical modeling to develop a new concept of microbial
response to soil warming, which could help improve predictions in global climate models.
A mathematical model was used to test whether a warmed soil system can reach a new
steady state that prevents further loss of soil carbon, even without acclimatization by the
soil microorganisms themselves. This model fits well with the observations representing
an important step towards a better understanding of soil feedback to global warming,
according to Christina Kaiser, group leader at the University of Vienna and guest
researcher in the Evolution and Ecology Program at IIASA [4].
2. The Earth as a system that operates like a living organism
The British scientist James Lovelock, who died in 2022 at the age of 103, developed the
popular Gaia Hypothesis, articulated with the collaboration of Lynn Margulis, to explain
the systemic behavior of planet Earth [5]. Lovelock has written three books on this
subject: A New Look at Life on Earth, The Ages of Gaia, and Gaia- The Practical Science
of Planetary Medicine. It is worth noting that Lovelock earned a 1948 PhD in medicine
from the London School of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine, conducted research at Yale
University, Baylor University College of Medicine, and Harvard University, and invented
many scientific instruments used by NASA for analyzing extraterrestrial atmospheres and
surface of planets, in addition to inventing in 1958 the Electron Capture Detector, which
helped in the discoveries about the persistence of CFC (Chloro Fluorocarbon) and its role
in the depletion of the ozone layer. When formulating the Gaia Hypothesis, from the
1960s, Lovelock began to develop a scientific hypothesis, postulating that living
organisms modify their inorganic environment in a favorable way for their survival,
forming together a complex and self-regulating system that works in a similar way to a
single living organism [5].

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It is important to observe that Gaia, in Greek mythology, is Mother Earth, as a primordial
and latent element of an immense generating potential [6]. Gaia is the personification of
planet Earth, represented as a gigantic and powerful woman. Named after the Greek
goddess, Gaia Theory (also known as the Gaia Hypothesis) was created by British
scientist James E. Lovelock [7]. In it, the scientist describes the planet Earth as a living
organism, which has some characteristics such as an atmosphere with chemistry and the
ability to maintain and change its environmental conditions - which does not happen with
other planets in the solar system (Figure 7).
Figure 7- The Gaia Hypothesis
Source: https://journalsofindia.com/gaia-hypothesis/
The Gaia Hypothesis was heavily criticized at its inception, but over time its most
essential elements have been widely accepted by the scientific community. The Gaia
Hypothesis remains somewhat controversial, but it opened up a completely new field of
interdisciplinary studies in Earth Sciences and contributed to the formation of a holistic
view of life and its evolution on the planet, moving away from classical mechanism. The
relevant contribution to science given through the Gaia Hypothesis earned him the
prestigious Wollaston Medal of the Geological Society of London. In his work The
Revenge of Gaia [8], Lovelock defends Gaia Theory in the context of global climate
change. With an easy-to-understand approach and a multidisciplinary approach, the book
consists of nine chapters, as follows: The State of the Earth, What is Gaia?, The Life
History of Gaia, Forecasts for the Twenty-first Century, Sources of Energy, Chemicals,
Food and Raw Materials, Technology for a Sustainable Retreat, A Personal View of
Environmentalism and Beyond the Terminus.
In the chapter “The state of the Earth”, Lovelock warns that the planet has been a victim
of human action that is like a fever patient. Lovelock claims that the possible hottest state

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on the planet would turmoil the political and commercial worlds. Imports of food, fuel
and raw materials will become difficult as suppliers may be plagued by droughts or
floods. Lovelock states that we may face the extinction of animal species and that, as part
of the system, just as we affect the environment, we are also affected. In the chapter “What
is Gaia?”, Lovelock asserts that the planet Earth would be like a spherical shell of matter
that envelops the planet's incandescent interior, starting where the rocks meet the magma,
about 160 kilometers below the surface and extending another 160 kilometers out to the
edge of space. This envelope includes the biosphere and is a physiological system,
keeping the planet fit for life for over three billion years. Lovelock states that Gaia, that
is, the planet Earth, is a self-regulating set of animate and inanimate parts in favor of life.
The evolution of organisms and the material world are part of a single story, where life
and the physical environment evolve as a single entity.
In the chapter “The Life History of Gaia”, Lovelock presents a history of life on planet
Earth, describing some geological eras, the emergence of life and the environmental
transformations that occurred on our planet whose different climate regimes occurred
several times, depending on the organization of the stars of the Solar System and the Sun's
own activity and that, currently, Gaia's self-regulation to withstand such events has been
affected by human activity. By replacing natural ecosystems with arable areas and
emitting greenhouse gases into the atmosphere, human activities interfere with
maintaining the global temperature of the planet by increasing heat while removing the
systems capable of regulating the global temperature. In the chapter “Forecasts for the
Twenty-first Century”, Lovelock states that, from the beginning of the industrial period,
around 1850, the average global temperature begins to rise with increasing acceleration,
reaching almost 1ºC above the average of the study in the long term. Figure 8 proves
Lovelock's assertion.
Figure 8- Average global temperatures
Source: http://www.earth-policy.org/indicators/C51/temperature_2014
Lovelock claims the Sun is 0.5°C hotter than it was 55 million years ago and half of the
Earth's forested surface is transformed into arable land, savannah and desert, reducing the
capacity for temperature self-regulation. He claims that several greenhouse gases, in
addition to methane and carbon dioxide, increase global warming, including CFCs
(chlorofluorocarbons), nitrous oxide and others that are products of agriculture and
industry. Figure 9 proves this assertion by Lovelock. Lovelock argues that we should
expect large weather events affecting only one region, such as temporary floods and heat

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waves. Even with so much heat, some places on the planet will be pleasant, like the British
Isles, however, few of the current billions of human beings will survive today.
Figure 9- Contribution of greenhouse gases to global warming
Source: https://educacao.uol.com.br/disciplinas/ciencias/efeito-estufa-emissao-excessiva-de-gases-
aumenta-temperatura-da-terra.htm
In the chapter “Sources of energy”, Lovelock deals with the most diverse energy sources,
such as fossil fuels and renewable sources, but what draws attention is the author
defending the use of nuclear energy feared by the disaster that occurred in Chernobyl and
Fukushima, arguing that, according to a Swiss report, nuclear energy is 40 times safer
than coal or oil energy sources, and safer than hydroelectric (renewable source). Lovelock
considers that, among the advantages of using nuclear fission as an energy producer, he
exposes that it generates 2 million times less waste than the burning of fossil fuels, and
that they would occupy only 6 cubic meters after being discarded and buried. In contrast,
the use of fossil fuels produces 27 billion tons of carbon dioxide annually, which would
form a mountain of waste over 1.5 kilometers high and 19 kilometers in circumference at
its base. He also notes that nuclear reactions are millions of times more energetic than
chemical reactions. Lovelock does not recommend the use of nuclear energy as a long-
term solution. He sees nuclear energy as a solution to the immediate problem of the need
to reduce greenhouse gas emissions from energy sources based on coal, oil and natural
gas. Lovelock considers biofuels as a dangerous source of energy, as they are easy to
grow and require a large area for this cultivation. So a question arises: if we already
produce food on more than half of the planet's productive land, what will happen to Gaia
if we use the rest to produce biofuel?
In the chapter “Chemicals, Foods and Raw Materials”, Lovelock notes that the
unrestricted use of pesticides in agriculture causes the death of birds that eat poisoned
insects. In many parts of the world, pesticides have been banned or have their uses
controlled. This means that there is no more room in agriculture, not just for insects, but
also for birds. Lovelock argues that if we are to cut greenhouse gas emissions, we must
stop using the Earth's surface the way it is used by agriculture. Lovelock questions
transforming rural regions into renewable energy production sites and its use in the
deployment of wind farms and biofuel production to light cities and supply energy for
urban transport. Lovelock notes that health authorities in Europe and the United States
have considered nitrates in food and water to be health threats. New restrictive regulations
were adopted to restrict the use of nitrate as a fertilizer and reduce its presence in food
and water. Lovelock draws attention to the acid rain that has occurred in various parts of

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Europe and has contaminated rivers and lakes, mainly due to the use of coal in the
production of electricity. Lovelock defends the thesis that organic food, food produced
without fertilizers or pesticides by agribusiness, is the appropriate answer for modern
agriculture. He suggests that humanity cannot use more than half of the Earth's surface
for agricultural production, undermining Gaia's ability to maintain its capacity as a planet.
Lovelock asserts that it is our first duty to meet our needs in light of Gaia's limitation.
Lovelock argues that it must be recognized that the Earth's natural ecosystem regulates
the planet's climate and chemistry and does not merely exist to supply us with food and
raw materials.
In the chapter “Technology for a sustainable retreat”, Lovelock shows that there are
efforts to use technology to stop climate change by direct intervention at the level of the
planet and beyond. There are two main scientific methods: the first to reduce the heat
received by the Earth from the Sun, and the second to remove carbon dioxide or other
greenhouse gases from the air or sources of combustion. There are proposals such as
building a parasol in the space between the Earth and the Sun to displace or disperse the
Sun's light and cool the Earth. This type of solution would only solve half of the problem
because carbon dioxide resulting from human activities would continue to grow in
abundance. Another proposal is to bury the carbon dioxide in appropriate rocks without
the certainty that such storage would be stable and that the gas would not be released into
the atmosphere. Another proposal is to extract carbon dioxide from the air and react it
with a powder made from an alkaline igneous rock called serpentine whose product would
be magnesium carbonate, a stable solid that could be used as a building material and easy
to store. Lovelock makes it quite clear that Gaia's well-being must come before
humanity's well-being because humanity cannot exist without Gaia, that is, without the
well-being of planet Earth.
In the chapter “A personal vision of environmentalism”, Lovelock states that the concept
of Gaia, a living planet, is essential for a coherent and practical environmentalism. He
contests the belief that the Earth should be exploited for the exclusive benefit of humanity
and that this false belief causes government policies and programs to encourage business
as usual. Lovelock argues that there are few, even among climate scientists and ecologists,
who fully admit the potential severity, imminence, of a catastrophic global disaster.
Lovelock claims that Gaia Theory is provisional and the basis for a coherent and practical
environmentalism, even if Gaia Theory is provisional and will be replaced by a more
complete view of Earth. Today, this theory is like the seed of an instinctive
environmentalism that can reveal planetary health or disease and help keep the world
healthy. He claims that the root of humanity's problems with the environment lies in the
lack of restriction on world population growth. Furthermore, Lovelock asserts that more
than half of the Earth's population lives in cities that almost never see, feel or hear the
natural world and that the obligation of environmentalists is to convince them that the
real world is the living Earth and that they and their cities are part of this real world and
everything is dependent on their existence. According to the UN, currently 55% of the
world's population lives in urban areas and the expectation is that this proportion will
increase to 70% by 2050. He considers that nuclear energy, although feared, is a necessary
remedy and that our survival as a species it is totally dependent on Gaia, ie planet Earth.
In the chapter “Beyond the Terminal”, Lovelock states that Gaia, the living Earth, is old
and not as strong as it was two billion years ago. Gaia struggles to keep the Earth cool
enough for its myriad life forms against the inevitable increase in heat from the Sun.
However, despite their difficulties, one of the life forms, the humans, have been trying to
dominate the Earth for their exclusive benefit. He shows that it is time to retreat, because

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while we do not decide what to do with natural resources and energy, they are becoming
scarce. Furthermore, he points out that Gaia acts as a nurturing mother, but is cruel to
transgressing children. A tolerable future would likely await us, but it is unwise to ignore
the possibility of disaster. One thing to do to reduce catastrophe, as Lovelock suggests,
would be to write a guide to help survivors rebuild civilization without repeating the
mistakes of the past. Such material composed of a philosophical and scientific
compendium sufficiently complete, clear and respectable, should be spread in every
home, school, library or place of worship, so that it will be available to everyone,
whatever happens.
REFERENCE
1. ALCOFORADO, Fernando. Como evitar a extinção da humanidade de ameaças
provocadas pelo planeta Terra e pelos seres humanos. Available on the website
<https://www.academia.edu/83922670/COMO_EVITAR_A_EXTIN%C3%87%C3
%83O_DA_HUMANIDADE_DE_AMEA%C3%87AS_PROVOCADAS_PELO_P
LANETA_TERRA_E_PELOS_SERES_HUMANOS>.
2. CIENTEC USP. O Núcleo da Terra está esfriando mais rápido do que se esperava.
Available on the website <https://www.parquecientec.usp.br/publicacoes/o-nucleo-
da-terra-esta-esfriando-mais-rapido>.
3. INOVAÇÃO TECNOLÓGICA. A Terra tem seu próprio mecanismo regulador de
temperatura. Available on the website
<https://www.inovacaotecnologica.com.br/noticias/noticia.php?artigo=a-terra-tem-
seu-proprio-mecanismo-regulador-
temperatura&id=010125221122#.ZBBb_nbMI2w>.
4. A CIÊNCIA EXPLICA. Feedback climático e os micro-organismos do solo.
Available on the website <http://www.cienciaexplica.com.br/2019/12/19/feedback-
climatico-micro-solo/>.
5. WIKIPEDIA. James Lovelock. Available on the website
<https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_Lovelock>.
6. WIKIPEDIA. Gaia (mitologia). Available on the website
<https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gaia_(mitologia)>.
7. BRASIL ESCOLA. A hipótese Gaia. Available on the website
<https://brasilescola.uol.com.br/biologia/hipotese-gaia.htm>.
8. LOVELOCK, James. The Revenge of Gaia. London: Penguin Books, 2007.
* Fernando Alcoforado, awarded the medal of Engineering Merit of the CONFEA / CREA System, member
of the Bahia Academy of Education, of the SBPC- Brazilian Society for the Progress of Science and of
IPB- Polytechnic Institute of Bahia, engineer and doctor in Territorial Planning and Regional Development
from the University of Barcelona, university professor (Engineering, Economy and Administration) and
consultant in the areas of strategic planning, business planning, regional planning, urban planning and
energy systems, was Advisor to the Vice President of Engineering and Technology at LIGHT S.A. Electric
power distribution company from Rio de Janeiro, Strategic Planning Coordinator of CEPED- Bahia
Research and Development Center, Undersecretary of Energy of the State of Bahia, Secretary of Planning
of Salvador, is the author of the books Globalização (Editora Nobel, São Paulo, 1997), De Collor a FHC-
O Brasil e a Nova (Des)ordem Mundial (Editora Nobel, São Paulo, 1998), Um Projeto para o Brasil
(Editora Nobel, São Paulo, 2000), Os condicionantes do desenvolvimento do Estado da Bahia (Tese de
doutorado. Universidade de Barcelona,http://www.tesisenred.net/handle/10803/1944, 2003), Globalização
e Desenvolvimento (Editora Nobel, São Paulo, 2006), Bahia- Desenvolvimento do Século XVI ao Século
XX e Objetivos Estratégicos na Era Contemporânea (EGBA, Salvador, 2008), The Necessary Conditions
of the Economic and Social Development- The Case of the State of Bahia (VDM Verlag Dr. Müller
Aktiengesellschaft & Co. KG, Saarbrücken, Germany, 2010), Aquecimento Global e Catástrofe Planetária
(Viena- Editora e Gráfica, Santa Cruz do Rio Pardo, São Paulo, 2010), Amazônia Sustentável- Para o
progresso do Brasil e combate ao aquecimento global (Viena- Editora e Gráfica, Santa Cruz do Rio Pardo,

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São Paulo, 2011), Os Fatores Condicionantes do Desenvolvimento Econômico e Social (Editora CRV,
Curitiba, 2012), Energia no Mundo e no Brasil- Energia e Mudança Climática Catastrófica no Século XXI
(Editora CRV, Curitiba, 2015), As Grandes Revoluções Científicas, Econômicas e Sociais que Mudaram o
Mundo (Editora CRV, Curitiba, 2016), A Invenção de um novo Brasil (Editora CRV, Curitiba,
2017), Esquerda x Direita e a sua convergência (Associação Baiana de Imprensa, Salvador, 2018), Como
inventar o futuro para mudar o mundo (Editora CRV, Curitiba, 2019), A humanidade ameaçada e as
estratégias para sua sobrevivência (Editora Dialética, São Paulo, 2021), A escalada da ciência e da
tecnologia e sua contribuição ao progresso e à sobrevivência da humanidade(Editora CRV, Curitiba,
2022), a chapter in the book Flood Handbook (CRC Press, Boca Raton, Florida, United States, 2022) and
How to protect human beings from threats to their existence and avoid the extinction of humanity (Europe,
Republic of Moldova, Chișinău, 2023).