3. Catacombs of Commodilla,
Jesus the Alpha and Omega
• This panel shows a bearded Jesus
flanked by two Greek letters: on the left
alpha, the first letter of the alphabet, on
the right, omega, the last letter of the
alphabet. The picture evokes Rev 1:8: "I
am the Alpha and the Omega, says the
Lord God, who is and was and who is to
come, the Almighty."
5. Menorahs and Ark of the Covenant, wall painting in a Jewish
catacomb, Villa Torlonia, Rome, 3rd Century.
10. Menorah
• During the wanderings of the Children of
Israel through the desert, the artisan,
Bezalel, the son of Uri, was commanded
to fashion a seven-branched candelabrum
or menorah, for use in the Lord's
Tabernacle:
11. CHRISTIAN SYMBOLISM
• Like Musical Notation, Christian
Symbolism illustrates that for which it
stands. And it adds a certain beauty and
mysticism to religion, speaking as it does
of an unseen world and a supernatural
faith. For the proper understanding of
Christian Art and Architecture some
knowledge of symbolism is absolutely
necessary.
12. Symbols
• The Dove represents the HOLY GHOST, under which figure the
Holy Spirit descended upon Christ at His Baptism.
• The Fish represents Christ - The Greek word "Ixthus" which means
"Fish," is spelled from the first letters of Greek words meaning,
"Jesus CHRIST, Son of GOD SAVIOR." This sign was used as a
secret symbol by the early Christians in the days of persecution.
• The Gospels are symbolized by the Figures of a Man, a Lion, an
Ox, and an Eagle referring to Saint Matthew, Saint Mark, Saint Luke
and Saint John, who respectively represented Our Lord as Man,
King, Priest and Victim and GOD.
• The Lamb typifies Christ as the Lamb of GOD symbolizing Christ’s
sacrifice on the Cross. It is usually seen holding a Banner and
Cross. The Good Shepherd also represents Christ. This is probably
the earliest of all Christian symbols. CHRIST is sometimes shown
with the Sheep in His Arms.
14. Symbol of the Cross
• The Cross represents the mode of
Christ’s Death. Though long antedating
Christianity it was early adopted as a
Sacred Symbol. Of the many forms of the
Cross, the Latin, the Celtic, the Greek and
the Maltese are those most generally
seen. The shape of the "True Cross" was
probably the Latin (or perhaps the "T")
Cross, having the lower arm longer than
the others.
15. Tau Cross -
This form of
cross
(resembling
the Greek
letter Tau)
predates the
Latin cross.
Greek
Cross - All
arms are
of equal
length.
Latin Cross -
The most
common
depiction of a
Christian
cross in
modern times.
St. Peter’s
Cross
-Representing
St. Peter’s
upside-down
crucifixion.
18. Early Christian Architecture
• The invention of the Christian church was one of the brilliant--
perhaps the most brilliant--solutions in architectural history. This
was achieved by a process of assimilating and rejecting various
precedents, such as the Greek temple, the Roman public building,
the private Roman house, and the synagogue.
• The Early Christian period saw the growth of Christianity, effectively
an underground Eastern mystery cult during the first three centuries
AD. It was established as the state religion of the Empire under the
successors of Constantine. Ecclesiastical administration set up
within the framework of the Roman Empire.
• Little change in social and economic order. Gradual split between
Eastern and Western Empire in state and church. Political and
economic breakdown of the West, ending in barbarian invasions.
19. • Early Christian Architecture: basilical church developed
from Roman secular basilica; centralized type from
Roman tombs. Basilical plan modified for liturgical
requirements; congregation and clergy segregated in
nave and aisles vs. transept and apse. Different variants
in East and West.
• In Rome, classical marble wall membering and
vocabulary, and emphasis on massive wall, gradually
replaced by broad, flat surfaces, evenly lighted; plain
brick exteriors; mosaic bands of interiors. Long planes
with little articulation, either horizontal or vertical.
•
20. Baptistry in Christian House, Dura Europos, miracles of
Jesus, Dura Europos, 3rd century AD., Syria.
21. • Following the Edict of Milan in 313 Constantine
began an extensive building program to provide
churches and meeting places for Christians.
Previously they met in private homes that had
rooms for worship.
The first Christian churches used Roman
structural and design elements.
The basilica evolved into the essential design for
the church that is still used today.
33. • “Built between 425 and 433, this small mausoleum
adopts a cruciform plan, and the crossing is covered by
a dome. On the outside, the architect simply juxtaposed
masses. However, in contrast to Romanesque
architecture, the mausoleum walls give the impression of
being simple partitions designed to mark off the interior
spaces. Blind arcades are its only decoration. The inside
is relatively small and extremely simple. The mausoleum
was intended from the very start to be covered with
mosaics, and these are the oldest in Ravenna. The
principal scene depicts the martyrdom of St. Lawrence at
the moment when the saint approaches the red-hot
gridiron. The other niche represents the Good Shepherd,
and on the upper walls are the apostles.”
35. Martyrdom of Saint Lawrence, lunette mosaic, Mausoleum
of Galla Placidia, Ravenna, Italy, c. 425-26 AD.
36. Good Shepherd, lunette mosaic, Mausoleum of Galla
Placidia, Ravenna, Italy, c. 425-26 AD.
37. Bookcase with the
Gospels in codex form
– Detail of a mosaic in
the eastern lunette,
Mausoleum of Galla
Placidia
38. Baptism of Christ,
with Twelve Saints;
dome mosaic,
Baptistry of the
Orthodox (Neonian
Baptistery),
mid-5th century A.D.
41. Early Byzantine art:
The First Golden Age
• The style of the Eastern Empire (called Byzantine)
begins with the re-naming of the capital and continues in
some parts of Europe and Russia well into the 15th
century A.D. Architecturally, the Byzantine style is
distinguished by an emphasis on centrally planned,
domed structures such as San Vitale. San Vitale is
located in Ravenna, a major Byzantine outpost in Italy. It
is a particularly good example of the style's mystical,
surging spaces: chapels seem carved out of the
radiating aisle, and the plan is a complex octagon-within-an-
octagon shape. This church dates to the first great
flowering of Byzantine art, the First Golden Age, when
the Emperor Justinian ruled from Constantinople.
44. Cathedral built at Constantinople (now Istanbul, Turkey) under the direction of
the Byzantine emperor Justinian I
46. The Dome
• It was not always possible to have a
cylindrical base to support a dome. To
support a dome on a square base arches
could be built to bridge the corners and
create an octagonal base. These were
called squinches. An even more elaborate
system of transferring the thrust of a dome
to four points was to employ segments of
vaults which are called pendentives.
52. Justinian and his Retinue, 546-548, mosaic, north wall
of the apse, Church of San Vitale, Ravenna, 530-547
53. Theodora and her retinue, 546-548, mosaic, south wall
of the apse, Church of San Vitale, Ravenna, 530-547
54. Apse mosaic of St. Appolinaris and Transfiguration of
Christ, Sant’Apollinare in Classe, ca. 550
55. The Archangel Michael
Right leaf of a diptych, early
sixth century. Ivory, approx.
17" X 151/2"
Constantinople, ca. 500
A.D. An ivory panel
depicting Saint Michael the
Archangel
56. Rebekah at the Wall
and Abraham's
Servant, page 13, The
Vienna Genesis, 6th
cent.
59. Icon
Virgin and Child with
Saints and Angels
encaustic on wood
from St. Catherine’s
Monastery, Sinai, Egypt
late sixth century
60. Middle Byzantine Art
• The resolution of the Iconoclastic
controversy in favor of the use of icons
ushered in a second flowering of the
empire, the Middle Byzantine period (843–
1261). The arts flourished, Greek became
the dominant official language, and
Christianity spread from Constantinople
throughout the Slavic lands to the north.
61. • In 1204, Crusaders from western Europe
took Constantinople, founding the Latin
Empire, which lasted until 1261, when
Byzantine rule was reestablished. The
final great artistic flowering that followed
lasted until Constantinople fell to the
Ottoman Turks in 1453, more than 1,100
years after its founding. Long after its fall,
Byzantium set a standard for luxury,
beauty, and learning that inspired both the
Latin West and the Islamic East.
62. Icon
Our Lady of Vladimir
Egg Tempera on Wood Panel
12th century Byzantine faces,
with later restorations
45 x 27 in
63. Icons and Iconoclasm
• The term icon comes from the Greek
eikon, which means "image" or "likeness."
In a religious context, it refers to some
image or representation of important
religious figures, but especially divine or
semi-divine figures. Often, these images
are venerated in some fashion.
64. The Iconoclastic Controversy
• Occurred between the mid-8th century and the
mid-9th century in the Byzantine Christian
Church over the question of whether or not
Christians should continue to revere icons. Most
unsophisticated believers tended to revere icons
(thus they were called iconodules), but many
political and religious leaders wanted to have
them smashed because they believed that
venerating icons was a form of idolatry (they
were called iconoclasts).
65. • The controversy was inaugurated in 726 when
Byzantine Emperor Leo III commanded that the
image of Christ be taken down from the Chalke
gate of the imperial palace. After much debate
and controversy, the veneration of icons was
official restored and sanctioned during a council
meeting in Nicaea in 787. However, conditions
were put on their use - they had to be painted
flat with no features which stood out. Down
through today icons play an important role in the
Eastern Orthodox Church, serving as "windows"
to heaven.
66. • One result of this conflict was that
theologians developed the distinction
between veneration and reverence
(proskynesis) which was paid to icons and
other religious figures, and adoration
(latreia), which was owed to God alone.
Another was bringing the term iconoclasm
into currency, now used for any attempt to
attack popular figures or icons (outside of
the strict religious sense of the word).
73. Objects of Veneration and Devotion
• During the second Byzantine golden age,
artists of great talent and high aesthetic
sensibility produced small luxury items of
a personal nature for members of the
court as well as for the church.
78. Domed Greek Cross Greek Cross domes
over square plan
Expanded quincunx
79. The Palatine Chapel (Italian:
Cappella Palatina) is the royal
chapel of the Norman kings of
Sicily situated on the ground
floor at the center of the Palazzo
Reale in Palermo.
The chapel was commissioned
by Roger II of Sicily in 1132. It
took eight years to build and
many more to decorate with
mosaics and fine art. The
sanctuary, dedicated to Saint
Peter, is reminiscent of a domed
basilica. It has three apses, as is
usual in Byzantine architecture,
with six pointed arches (three on
each side of the central nave)
resting on recycled classical
columns.
80. Marble and mosaic
decoration in the Chamber of
King Roger, Palazzo
Normano, Palermo, 1154-66.
81. The late Byzantine period (1204–
1453)
• Quite a number of buildings from the
late Byzantine period survive in
Istanbul, Thessaloníki, and throughout
Greece and the Balkans. In general they
are on a small scale and follow the plan
of those of the middle Byzantine
period.
83. Icon
Archangel Michael
silver gilt with enamel
and gemstones
late 10th or early 11th
century
Michael is one of the
principal angels in
Abrahamic tradition; his
name was said to have
been the war-cry of the
angels in the battle fought
in heaven against Satan
and his followers.
84. • The name of the church, "in Chora" means "in
the country" because the very ancient
monastery to which it was attached was outside
the walls of the Constantinian city; later when it
was included within the Theodosian walls, the
name remained the Holy Savior of Chora. The
mosaics and frescoes are by far the most
important and extensive series of Byzantine
paintings in the city and among the best and
most beautiful in the world.
85. Fresco of the Resurrection (Anastasis) in the Church in Chora
86. The Old Testament
Trinity Prefiguring the
Incarnation" by
Andrei Rublev,
c.1410, is painted on
wood, 56" X 45".
This late Byzantine
style can be seen in
the art of the west in
late Gothic and early
Renaissance painting.
91. The Kaaba is the "cubic"
shrine in Mecca, the
center of Islamic worship
and the holiest place in
Islam. ("Kaaba" means
"cube" in Arabic.) It was
originally a shrine built by
Abraham devoted to the
one God, about 2000
B.C.
93. • Muslims pray five times a day facing the Kaaba
in Mecca, and if they are able, they will make a
Pilgrimage, or "hajj", there at least once in their
lives.
• At the time before Islam, the Kaaba was used to
house about 360 idols for the various tribes of
Arabia. The Prophet Muhammad was against
idol worship and preached that there was one
God (Allah). This started the hostilities against
him and his followers. After leaving Mecca and
going to Medina, the Prophet Muhammad and
his followers finally returned triumphantly into
Mecca. There the Muslims destroyed the idols
and rededicated the Kaaba to the one God.
94. Dome of the Rock
• This is the oldest Muslim building which has survived
basically intact in its original form. It was built by the
Caliph Abd al-Malik and completed in 691 CE. The
building encloses a huge rock located at its center, from
which, according to tradition, the Prophet Muhammad
ascended to heaven at the end of his Night Journey. In
the Jewish tradition this is the Foundation Stone, the
symbolic foundation upon which the world was created,
and the place of the Binding of Isaac. The Caliph Omar
is said to have cleared the waste which had accumulated
on the rock during the Byzantine period. The structure is
octagonal and the dome is borne by a double system of
pillars and columns. The walls, ceiling, arches, and
vaults are decorated with floral images. The dome, on
the inside, is covered with colored and gilded stucco.
98. Dome of the Rock
• The plot of land on the elevated stone platform known as Haram
Ash-Sharif on Temple Mount upon which sits the Dome of the Rock
is sacred to three of the world's major monotheistic religions:
Judaism, Christianity, and Islam.
• The site was first consecrated by the Israelites of Exodus. Later,
according to Jewish tradition, Abraham prepared to sacrifice his son
Isaac upon a rock that protruded from the centre of the platform.
Later still, upon the same platform, Solomon erected his temple.
• For Christians, in addition to the Old Testament Jewish
associations, the Temple Mount was revered because of its place in
the life and ministries of Jesus Christ.
• For Moslems, the rock was sanctified by the story of the Prophet
Mohammed's Miraaj or Night Journey to Jerusalem and back to
Mecca (Qur'an 17:1). From the top of the rock, Mohammed began
his ascent to Heaven.
100. • Islamic belief in Aniconism and the
doctrine of unity (al-twahid) demanded a
rich vocabulary of abstract, geometric
forms that translated into the architecture
of mosques.
• Artists reiterated these forms in complex
decoration that covered the surface of
every work of art from large buildings, to
rugs, paintings and small sacred objects.
102. Plan of Typical, Early Islamic Mosque
The numbers below correspond to the
circled numbers to the right.
1. Qibla wall.
2. Mihrab niche.
3. Hypostyle hall.
4. Courtyard (or "sahn").
5. Minaret.
108. Muqarnas is the Arabic word for stalactite vault, an architectural ornament
developed around the middle of the tenth century in north eastern Iran
and almost simultaneously, but apparently independently, in central North
Africa.
109. Page from Koran in kufic script, from Syria. Ink, pigments,
and gold on vellum, 9th century
110. Leaf from a Qur’an
manuscript
Ahmad ibn al-
Suhravardi al-Bakri,
calligrapher
Muhammad ibn
Aybak, illuminator
Baghdad, Iraq
Ilkhanid, 1307–1308
Ink, colors, and gold
on paper; 20 3/16 x
14 1/2 in. (51.3 x
36.8cm)
111. The most complete
documentation of Samanid
art is to be found in its
ceramics, and during the 9th
century, the wares of
Transoxiana were very
popular throughout the
eastern provinces of Persia.
The best-known and most
refined pottery of this
Samarkand type is that
bearing large inscriptions in
Kufic (the earliest version of
Arabic script used in the
Koran, named after the city
Kufa in Iraq) painted in black
on a white background.
112. Part of the St. Josse silk, Khorasan 10th century.
The inscription wishes 'glory and prosperity to Abu Mansur
Bukhtegin, may God prolong (His favours to him?)'.
113. Mosque lamps
• Throughout the Islamic world, mosques
and other religious structures were
frequently illuminated with oil lamps
suspended from the rafters or ceiling.
During the fourteenth century, hundreds of
such lamps were commissioned by the
powerful Mamluk ruler and patron of the
arts, Sultan Hasan (reigned 1344–51 and
1354–61), for his vast religious complex in
Cairo.
114. • These mosque lamps were elaborately
decorated with paint, gilt, and enamel, and
often included the sultan's name as
symbolic representations of a specific
Koranic verse (sura 24, verse 35), known
as the Light verse, which encircles the tall
neck of the lamp.
• They provided light by means of a wick
placed in a container of oil within the lamp.
116. • The lamps are also decorated with a bold
inscription frieze containing the name and
titles of Sayf al-Din Shaykhu al-Nasiri, an
important patron of art and architecture in
Cairo. His heraldic device incorporating a
red cup appears in the centre of the
roundels on the neck and the underside of
the lamp.
117. Isfahan is already a city of
ancient history and
considerable wealth when
Shah Abbas decides, in 1598,
to turn it into a magnificent
capital. It has a Masjid-i-Jami,
or Friday Mosque, dating from
the Seljuk period (11th-12th
century), still surviving today
and noted for its fine
patterned brickwork. And it
has a thriving school of
craftsmen skilled in the
making of polychrome
ceramic tiles.
118. Islamic Terms
• Mihrab - A mihrab is a niche in the wall which
points the worshipers toward Mecca.
• Minbar - A minbar is a "pulpit", or a place from
which a religious leader (an "imam") speaks to
the people. It looks something like a staircase.
• Minarets - Minarets are towers of a mosque.
From the minaret a person (a "muezzin") calls
people to prayer five times a day.
119. Mihrab
Isfahan, Iran
Ilkhanid, 1354
Mosaic of
monochrome-glaze
tiles on composite
body set on plaster;
135 1/16 x 113
11/16 in.
120. Egypt, Cairo, Mihrab and Minbar of the Mosque of Sultan Hasan, 1356-
1360. This liwan, or niche is the side of the mosque used as a madrasa by
the Shafi, one of the four schools of Islamic legal and theological thought.
122. Five Pillars of Islam
Art and Context
• The Five Pillars of Islam are core beliefs
that shape Muslim thought, deed, and
society. A Muslim who fulfills the Five
Pillars of Islam, remains in the faith of
Islam, and sincerely repents of his sins,
will make it to Jannah (paradise). If he
performs the Five Pillars but does not
remain in the faith, he will not be saved.
123. The First Pillar
• Shahada
• The Shahada is the Islamic proclamation that "There is
no true God except Allah and Muhammad is the
Messenger of Allah."
• This is the confession that Allah is the one and only true
God, that Allah alone is worthy of worship, that Allah
alone is the sovereign lord who does what he wills with
whoever he wills. It means that all his rules and laws
found in the Koran are to be followed. It means that the
Christian doctrine of God as a Trinity is false as are all
other belief systems including pantheism.
• Muhammad is the true and greatest prophet of Allah and
recognition of Muhammad as the Prophet of God is
required. It was through Muhammad that Allah conveyed
the last and final revelation.
124. The Second Pillar
• Prayer (Salat)
• Prayer involves confession of sins which begins
with the purification of the body and ends with
the purification of the soul. Prayer is performed
five times a day. The first prayer is at dawn and
the last at sunset.
• The names of the prayers are Fajr, Dhuhr, Asr,
Maghrib, Isha. The Maghrib prayer is the sunset
prayer. Isha is the prayer that is said after
sunset. There is also a prayer that is said right
after Fajr known as Shurooq.
126. Third Pillar
• Fasting (Saum)
• The month of Ramadan is the month of
fasting in Islam. It is an act of worship
where the faithful follower denies his own
needs and seeks Allah. Usually, this
fasting entails no drinking or eating during
the daylight hours for the entire month of
Ramadan.
127. Fourth Pillar
• Alms-giving or charity (Zakat)
• Charity given to the poor. It benefits the
poor and it helps the giver by moving him
towards more holiness and submission to
Allah. Alms-giving is considered a form of
worship to God.
128. Fifth Pillar
• Pilgrimage (Hajj)
• This is the pilgrimage to Mecca. All
Muslims, if they are able, are to make a
pilgrimage to Mecca. It involves financial
sacrifice and is an act of worship.
Muslims must make the pilgrimage the
first half of the last month of the lunar year
129. Muqarnas dome, Hall of the Abencerrajes,
Palace of the Lions, built between 1354 - 1391
130. Portable Arts
• Metal Work – inherited skills of the Roman
and Byzantine craftsmen
• Ceramics – development of lustrous
metallic surface
• Textiles – traditional silk weaving passed
from Persian to Islamic artisans
132. Pen box, 13th century
Western Iran or northern Iraq (al-Jazira)
Brass inlaid with gold and silver; H. 1 5/8 in. (4.1 cm), L. 8 3/4
in. (22.2 cm)
133. • Muslim metalworkers produced large numbers
of pen boxes, many of which were richly
decorated with inlays of gold, silver, and copper.
A typical medieval Islamic calligrapher's pen box
is an elongated rectangular object with rounded
corners, about ten inches long, three inches
wide, and two inches tall. In its simple
construction, it is composed of a main body and
a lid with two hinges along one of the long sides
and a clasp on the opposite side. The interior
includes a receptacle to hold the inkwell in one
corner while the remaining space is reserved for
a variety of reed pens and penknives.
134. The Macy Jug, from Iran,
1215 – 16
Composite body glazed,
painted fritware* and
incised with pierced outer
shell. 6 5/8” x 7 ¼”
*a flux that is stabilized by melting
it with silica and regrinding it into a
fine powder
135. Muslim Tapestry preserved
in the Monastery of the
Royal Strikes Burgos. It is
called "banner of Navas de
Tolosa," because it was
taken by King Alfonso VIII of
Castile the Almohad ben
Muhammad Yaqub. Very
richly decorated, upper and
lower bands bearing phrases
written religious significance.
To the sides, the scripts are
made so that they can be
read by the setback of the
tapestry. In the center, a star
with eight points evolves in
different ways to death in a
circle, according to Muslim
taste for geometry. The
predominant colors red and
gold.
136. Medallion rug with a
field of flowers, 17th
century; Safavid
Probably Kirman, Iran
Wool pile on cotton,
wool, and silk
foundation; 81 x 56 in.
(205.7 x 142.4 cm)
137. Textiles
• Roses, hyacinths, narcissi, campanula, irises,
carnations, and lilies are among the many types of
flowers that blossom in the field and borders of this
carpet, which is generally attributed to the seventeenth-century
production of Kirman, Iran. The flora are
arranged symmetrically in pattern and color around a
central octagonal medallion and four quarter medallions
in the corners. The art of illumination, especially that of
book covers, might have provided the inspiration for the
central and corner medallion design, which was woven
into so many Persian carpets. The decorative theme of
the medallion has Central Asian roots and was known in
the Timurid period, but its popularity greatly increased
during the rule of the Safavids and beyond.
138. Carpet Making
• Making knotted carpets were surely
regarded as a tradition in ancient Persia
like in today. The oldest piece of rug in the
world is an Iranian knotted one called
Pazyrik (named after an area where it has
been discovered in a frozen tomb in
Southern Siberia). It dates back to 400-
300 B.C.
140. • Iranian carpets consist of warp, weft, silk
pile, wool, cotton or fuzz knotted with weft
forming the flesh of carpets. In different
parts of Iran, carpet makers created their
own styles and schools. Techniques were
sometimes different from tribe to tribe or
city to city.
142. • Plain flat-weave or kilim weave implies a
tapestry-like flat woven structure. The
coloured woollen threads forming the
motifs are interwoven across the warps,
not from edge to edge, but only where the
pattern and colour make it necessary. The
result is a thinner, soft yet hardy reversible
tapestry-like weave.
145. Manuscripts and painting
• Calligraphy is the most highly regarded and most
fundamental element of Islamic art. It is significant that
the Qur’an, the book of God's revelations to the Prophet
Muhammad, was transmitted in Arabic, and that inherent
within the Arabic script is the potential for developing a
variety of ornamental forms. The employment of
calligraphy as ornament had a definite aesthetic appeal
but often also included an underlying talismanic
component. While most works of art had legible
inscriptions, not all Muslims would have been able to
read them. One should always keep in mind, however,
that calligraphy is principally a means to transmit a text,
albeit in a decorative form.
146. • Objects from different periods and regions vary in the
use of calligraphy in their overall design, demonstrating
the creative possibilities of calligraphy as ornament. In
some cases, calligraphy is the dominant element in the
decoration. In these examples, the artist exploits the
inherent possibilities of the Arabic script to create writing
as ornament. An entire word can give the impression of
random brushstrokes, or a single letter can develop into
a decorative knot. In other cases, highly esteemed
calligraphic works on paper are themselves ornamented
and enhanced by their decorative frames or
backgrounds. Calligraphy can also become part of an
overall ornamental program, clearly separated from the
rest of the decoration. In some examples, calligraphy
can be combined with vegetal scrolls on the same
surface though often on different levels, creating an
interplay of decorative elements.
147. • Consisting of, or generated from, such simple forms as
the circle and the square, geometric patterns were
combined, duplicated, interlaced, and arranged in
intricate combinations, thus becoming one of the most
distinguishing features of Islamic art. However, these
complex patterns seem to embody a refusal to adhere
strictly to the rules of geometry. As a matter of fact,
geometric ornamentation in Islamic art suggests a
remarkable amount of freedom; in its repetition and
complexity, it offers the possibility of infinite growth and
can accommodate the incorporation of other types of
ornamentation as well. In terms of their abstractness,
repetitive motifs, and symmetry, geometric patterns have
much in common with the so-called arabesque style
seen in many vegetal designs. Calligraphic
ornamentation also appears in conjunction with
geometric patterns.
148. • The four basic shapes, or "repeat units,"
from which the more complicated patterns
are constructed are: circles and interlaced
circles; squares or four-sided polygons;
the ubiquitous star pattern, ultimately
derived from squares and triangles
inscribed in a circle; and multisided
polygons. It is clear, however, that the
complex patterns found on many objects
include a number of different shapes and
arrangements, allowing them to fit into
more than one category
149. Leaf from a
Qur’an, 1302–8;
Ilkhanid
Iraq (Baghdad)
Ink, gold, and
colors on paper;
17 x 13 7/8 in.
(43.2 x 35.2 cm)
150. • This illuminated page originally formed the right
half of a double-page opening to a section of a
Qur’an. It combines the three main Islamic types
of nonfigural decoration: calligraphy, vegetal
patterns, and geometric patterns. The vegetal
patterns here are the classical scrolls utilized as
the background to the calligraphy, within the
compartments of the geometric interlace, and in
the text frame and margin medallion. Two
ground colors are used to introduce additional
patterning.
151. The Ottoman Empire
• The empire they built was the largest and most influential
of the Muslim empires of the modern period, and their
culture and military expansion crossed over into Europe.
Not since the expansion of Islam into Spain in the eighth
century had Islam seemed poised to establish a
European presence as it did in the sixteenth and
seventeenth centuries. Like that earlier expansion, the
Ottomans established an empire over European territory
and established Islamic traditions and culture that last to
the current day (the Muslims in Bosnia are the last
descendants of the Ottoman presence in Europe).
153. • The Ottoman empire lasted until the twentieth
century. While historians like to talk about
empires in terms of growth and decline, the
Ottomans were a force to be reckoned with,
militarily and culturally, right up until the break-up
of the empire in the first decades of this
century. The real end to the Ottoman culture
came with the secularization of Turkey after
World War II along European models of
government. The transition to a secular state
was not an easy one and its repercussions are
still being felt in Turkish society today;
nevertheless, secularization represents the real
break with the Ottoman tradition and heritage.
154. The mosque was commissioned by
Sultan Selim II and was built by
architect Mimar Sinan between
1568 and 1574. It was considered
by Sinan to be his masterpiece and
is one of the highest achievements
of Islamic The Selimiye Mosque (Turkish: architecture.
Selimiye Camii) is a mosque in
the city of Edirne, Turkey.
155. Sinan
(1489 -1588)
• Prolific and brilliant master-architect of the
Ottoman Empire, holding responsibilities for an
enormous range of public works. One of his
greatest buildings was the Süleymaniye Mosque
in Istanbul (1550–7) which shows how much he
had absorbed of Byzantine forms and
construction, especially those of the Church of
Hagia Sophia, but Sinan improved and
rationalized the system of buttressing for the
central dome, and clarified the subsidiary
elements.
157. Illuminated Manuscripts and Tugras
• A peculiarly Ottoman Turkish
phenomenon is the calligraphic "tughra"
(handsign), unique to each sultan, which
gives his name and titles and appears at
the head of every firman (royal edict). The
spectacularly bold calligraphy contrasts
with the dense yet delicate flowering
plants, arabesques, and floral scrolls.
158. Tughra of Sultan Sulaiman the Magnificent, 16th century;
Ottoman period (c.1555-60) attributed to Istanbul, Turkey
Ink, colors and gold on paper; H: 20 1/2 in. W: 25 3/8 in.
160. • The term Middle Ages refers mainly to the
history of Christian and Jewish Europe
between the fall of Rome and the
Renaissance, around 400-1500 AD.
Historians usually divide this into three
smaller periods, the Early Middle Ages,
the High Middle Ages, and the Late Middle
Ages.
162. The Visigoths
• Also known as the Goths, were a barbaric
tribe. Living on the delta of the Danube
River, their kingdom was inherited by
Alaric I.
163. Eagle Brooch Spain
6th Century. Gilt,
Bronze, crystal,
garnets, and other
gems. 5 1/2”
164. The Norse
• The last great waves of European migrations began in
the eighth century and picked up dramatically in the ninth
and tenth centuries. This time it was a group of relatively
sedentary Germanic tribes in the northernmost reaches
of Europe, the Norsemen. These were really not one
ethnic group, but an entire spectrum of peoples speaking
many different languages. For all that, the principal
Norsemen that raided and emigrated out of Northern
Europe were Norwegians and Danish. Again, however,
these are not single ethnic groups—the Danes, for
instance, were an entire set of different peoples.
165. The Celts and Anglo-Saxons
• Europe throughout most of the historical period was
dominated by a single cultural group, a powerful,
culturally diverse group of peoples, the Celts. By the
start of the Middle Ages, the Celts had been struck on
two fronts by two very powerful cultures, Rome in the
south, and the Germans, who were derived from Celtic
culture, from the north.
• This monolithic culture spread from Ireland to Asia Minor
(the Galatians of the New Testament). The Celts even
sacked Rome in 390 BC and successfully invaded and
sacked several Greek cities in 280 BC. Though the Celts
were preliterate during most of the classical period, the
Greeks and Romans discuss them with disdain.
166. • The Angle, Saxon, and Jute tribes who
invaded Britain in the 5th and 6th
centuries are known as the Anglo-Saxons.
They left their homelands in northern
Germany, Denmark and northern Holland
and rowed across the North Sea in
wooden boats.
168. Purse cover, from the Sutton Hoo burial ship, Suffolk,
England. c. 615 - 30. Cloisonné plaques of gold, garnet,
and checked enamel, length 8" (20.3 cm). The British
Museum, London.
169. Man (symbol of St
Matthew), from Book of
Durrow. c. 660-680
170. Chi Rho Iota page,
Book of Matthew,
Book of Kells.
Tempera on velum,
late 8th or early 9th
century
171. Probably the earliest group of
ringed high crosses, the Ossory
group includes these two fine
high crosses, the North and
South Cross at Ahenny in Co
Tipperary. Found at the
monastic site of Kilclispeen
these two crosses imitate the
earlier wooden crosses which
were encased with a metal
binding, the stone bosses
imitate the studs which would
have covered the rivets that held
the metal and wooden crosses
together.
172. Left: Began by Maius of Escalade, finished by Emeterius, “Emeterius
and Senior next to the Tower of Tabara,” Tabara Apocalypse, 970
Right: Heavenly Jerusalem from the Morgan Beatus, ca. 940-945
173. Battle of the Bird and the
Serpent, Commentary on
the Apocalypse by Beatus
and Commentary on
Daniel by Jerome.
Monastery of San
Salvador at Tabara, Leon,
Spain July 6, 975
Tempera on Parchment
15 ¾” x 10 ¼”
174. Charlemagne’s Palace
• The creation of a "New Rome" was Charlemagne's guiding vision
when he began the construction of the Palace Chapel in the former
Roman spa resort Aachen (Aix-la-Chapelle) in ca. 786 - laying the
foundation stone for one of Europe's oldest Northern stone buildings.
The cathedral obtained its present shape in the course of more than a
millennium. The core of the Aachen cathedral is the formerly
mentioned Palace Chapel - at the time of its construction it was the
largest church north of the Alps. Its fascinating architecture with
Classical, Byzantine and Germanic-Franconian elements is the
essence of a monumental building of greatest importance. It was
modeled after the Church of San Vitale in Ravenna. For 600 years,
from 936 to 1531, Aachen cathedral was the church of coronation for
30 German kings. In order to bear the enormous flow of pilgrims in the
Gothic period a choir hall was built: a two-part Capella vitrea (glass
chapel) which was consecrated on the 600th day of Charlemagne's
death.
175. Interior of the
Palatine Chapel of
Charlemagne,
Aachen, Germany.
792-805
In 786-787 A.D. Pope
Hadrian authorized
Charlemagne to
transport marble from
Italy to Aachen. In 798,
the precious ancient
columns were erected in
the church. The delivery
of the relics in 799 / 800
assured the completion
of the building.
183. 43:22 “Because for thy sake we are killed all the day long: we are
counted as sheep for the slaughter”; 43:23: “Arise, why sleepest thou,
O Lord?”; 43:25: “For our soul is humbled down to the dust: our belly
cleaveth to the earth.”
185. Crucifixion, front
cover of Lindau
Gospels. c. 870
Early Medieval
(Carolingian) Gold,
precious stones, and
pearls, 1' 1 3/8" x 10
3/8"
186. Viking Era
• Nearly all Viking Age art is applied art, that
is, the decoration of a wide variety of
objects used in daily life. However,
woodcarvers, sculptors and metalworkers
brought a dynamism and inventiveness to
their task which has left a rich legacy of
extravagant animal ornament.
187. • Most of the finest surviving examples of
art from the early Viking Age have been
found in graves, especially on jewelry and
weapons, while later Viking art is best
represented on objects from silver hoards,
from the developing towns and on the
Scandinavian runestones. There are also
small-scale carvings in other materials -
amber, jet, bone, walrus ivory and, where
it survives, wood - which remind us both of
the skills of the Scandinavian craftsmen
and of how well suited Viking Age animal
motifs were to their purpose.
190. Royal Rune Stone, Ordered by King Harald Bluetooth
Jelling, Denmark. 983 – 985. Granite height about 8’
191. Carved as
memorials to King
Gorm "the Old"
and Queen Thyri,
over a thousand
years ago, these
two stones stand
in the yard of a
Romanesque
church in Jelling,
Denmark, an old
Viking royal site.
One of the stones,
the smaller one, is
considered to be
the birth
certificate of
Denmark.
Inscribed in Old Norse, Younger Futhark, a form of Germanic Celtic Ogham,
the oldest of the Rune Stones was raised by the first King of all of Danmark,
King Gorm the Old, in memory of his wife Thyra (Thyrvé) who he referred to
as Denmark's Salvation.
192. The largest of the Rune Stones was raised by
the son of King Gorm and Queen Thyra,
Harald Bluetooth, in their memory. It
celebrates the union of Danmark and
Norway; as well as, the offspring of their
Sangreal Christ Lineage. The Danes were
followers of the true teachings of Christ
under the auspices of Apostle Mary
Magdalene, and the Gospel according to
Mary; rather than, the teachings of Apostle
Peter and the prevailing by brute force
Christian doctrine of the times.
193. • Originally painted in bright colours,
one side of the largest Rune Stone had
a figure of Christ. The other side of the
Rune Stone had the image of a snake
(DNA Spiral, Genetic Coded Bloodline)
entwined about a lion (Symbol of Ra
Royalty). A symbolic code left behind
for the discerning that King Gorm and
Queen Thyra were of Sangreal Lineage
of the royal bloodline of Jesus The
Christ and his companion wife Mary of
Magdalene.
194. Viking History
• Seafaring bands of Norse seamen known
as Vikings (Viken, “people from the
coves”) descended on the rest of Europe.
Frequently their targets were wealthy
isolated Christian monasteries.
• The Viking Leif Eriksson reached North
America in 1000. In good weather a Viking
ship could sail 200 miles in a day.
195. There are 28 stave
churches left standing
in Norway, dating from
c.1130 and onwards,
with elements of older
origin. What we see are
the structural
consequences of the
builders' actions
196. The north portal of
the Urnes stave
church (11th cent.):
"The intertwined
snakes and
dragons represent
the end of the world
according to the
Norse legend of
Ragnarök".
197. Built just before 1150, and
dedicated to the Apostle St.
Andrew. It is one of the best
preserved stave churches and it
has not been added or rebuilt
since it was new. The pulpit is
from the last period of the
1500’s. The altar-piece is from
1620.
On the church walls are found
several runic inscriptions. Two
of them are dated back to the
middle of the 1100’s. They read:
"Tor wrote these runes in the
evening at the St. Olav’s Mass"
and "Ave Maria"
BORGUND STAVE CHURCH
198. Ottonian Europe
• Otto I or the Great is considered by many
historians to be the founder of the Holy
Roman Empire. He was an effective
military warrior who encouraged military
expansion, colonization, and missionary
activity eastward into the Slavic world. His
campaign was to restore kingship on the
Carolingian model.
199. • Succeeding his father Henry I as the Duke of Saxony in
936, his military genius was tested early. Otto I faced
the continuous raids and sieges of the dukes, the Ducal
Rebellions, which were led by his brother Henry of
Bavaria. The war was the result of him acquiring an
increasing amount of power that others resented. It
ended with Otto's victory in 941 in which he replaced the
rebellious dukes with his own relatives, thus compelling
them to accept royal over lordship. In 951, he
commanded a successful invasion of Italy and declared
himself King. Magyars invaded the empire in 954, and
this invasion forced the nobility to reunite with Otto in
order to defend themselves. He was able to defeat the
Magyars in the battle of Lechfield in 955 and this
temporarily restored peace throughout his empire.
200. • In order to unify and control the major
territories of Germany, he established the
Church-State Alliance; this strengthened
his power and decreased the power of the
duchies. He gave large grants of royal
land to bishops and abbots, who became
his royal vassals and were obligated to
provide him with military and political
services. It was successful for both the
Church and the State because it had
church officials ruling the land, but allowed
Otto the power to appoint them.
201. • Otto was crowned Roman Emperor in 962 by
Pope John XII, the same office Charlemagne
held in 800. Pope John XII eventually turned
against Otto and his increasing power, so the
papacy was taken away from him. Otto then
imposed the rule that no pope could be elected
without the approval of the emperor. This
proclamation opened an era of German
domination of the papacy and, in effect, made
him the head of the Christian community.
• Otto died in 973 and was succeeded by his son
Otto II. His policies continued with success until
1056. Many people believe that Otto revived the
Roman Empire and consider him one of the
greatest Saxon rulers.
203. Ottonian Architecture
• Near Quedlinburg in Gernrode stands the only
almost entirely preserved church from the early
Ottonian period, the Collegiate Church of St.
Cyriakus. The decorations that the master
masons of the Romanesque created here are
still unparalleled. Even though almost no right
angles were used in the architecture of the
church it has still survived for over thousand
years.
206. Doors of Biship Bernward
Made for the Abbey Church of
St. Michael, Hildesheim,
Germany
208. Bronze doors of St.
Michael’s
Story of Adam and
Eve and Life of Christ
209. Ottonian Sculpture
• The Gero Cross reintroduced into Western sculpture the
modeled-in-the-round technique that had practically
disappeared after the Classical period. The crucifix has
a monumental scale of 6’2”. It demonstrated the deep
suffering of Christ. What is striking about this image is
the note of emotionalism and naturalism that is seen in
the forward bulge of the body that shows the physical
strain on the arms and shoulders. The face expresses
the agony that was felt before death, but is now left
lifeless. The horror of the martyr’s tortured death is
exposed. Archbishop Gero presented the crucifix to the
Cathedral. It functions as both sculpture and a reliquary,
where the Eucharist is held in a receptacle in the head.
211. Ottonian Sculpture
• Ottonian religious sculpture is monumental in scale and
executed with clear, round forms and highly expressive
facial features. The wooden Gero Crucifix (969-76;
Cologne Cathedral) reflects a humanitarian concern for
the sufferings of Jesus. Sophisticated relief bronzes
were cast for the cathedral doors at Hildesheim (1015).
Ottonian manuscript illumination was superbly
developed; produced at several flourishing artistic
centers, including Regensburg and Fulda, it combined
Carolingian and Byzantine influences. Manuscripts such
as the Gospel Book of Otto II are two-dimensional,
figural, and linear, incorporating much gold leaf.
212. Page with Otto III enthroned,
Liuthar Gospels (Aachen
Gospels) Germany, c. 997-1000.
Ink, gold, and
Tempera on vellum, 11" X 8 ½".
213. • From the so-called Aachen Gospels made for
Otto III about the year 996. Otto III was the heir
to the Ottonian dynasty. The Ottonians were
heirs to the Carolingians. In the tenth century the
Ottonians revived the disintegrated Holy Roman
Empire. The dominion of the Ottonians was not
as extensive as the Carolingians. Their
territories included Germany and northern Italy.
Like the image from the Codex Aureus, this
image is based on the Book of Revelation. The
central figure here is Otto who is in the guise of
Christ. In a detail not shown in the Codex
Aureus image, the Revelation passage
describes that the Lamb appeared surrounded
by Four Beasts.
215. ROMANESQUE EUROPE
(c. 1000-1200)
• Romanesque appears to have been the first
pan-European style since Roman Imperial
Architecture and examples are found in every
part of the continent. One important fact pointed
out by the stylistic similarity of buildings across
Europe is the relative mobility of medieval
people. Contrary to many modern ideas of life
before the Industrial Revolution, merchants,
nobles, knights, artisans, and peasants crossed
Europe and the Mediterranean world for
business, war, and religious pilgrimages,
carrying their knowledge of what buildings in
different places looked like.
217. • The Romanesque was not confined only to architecture.
It was accompanied by changes in design for
woodworking seen, for instance in, chests and
cupboards. The exterior of the book changes at this time,
and as does manuscript design as scribes start to use a
new clear style of writing (Caroline minuscule). Texts are
set among intricate spirals and elaborate and finely-drawn
nature motifs. This became an international
graphic style, influencing even Jewish illuminated
manuscripts. In western painting, mosaic and fresco
design, from around 1150 a spirit emerged across
Europe. This attempted to revive the styles of the art of
classical antiquity, and yet it also drew heavily on ancient
Christian Celtic and Byzantine arts.
218. The Main Characteristics
of the Style
• A combination of masonry, arch and piers is the
basis of the Romanesque style. The main
concept for buildings was the addition of pure
geometrical forms. The new concept of stone
vaulting required stronger walls for support.
Because of the lack of knowledge of the building
statics it was necessary to build strong, thick
walls with narrow openings.
219. • The Pier (an upright support generally square, or
rectangular in plan) is a better solution for masonry
walls, than the column. Columns are subsequently
replaced by piers, or transformed to better support the
masonry arches. Geometrisation and rigidity in
Romanesque architecture is evident in the
transformation of column capitals from Corinthian to
cubic capitals, as found in the church of St.Michael,
Hildesheim. There is also one new element in the
capitals developed during Romanesque period - the
impost. It's a trapezoid form which stands between
capital and arch.
220. Some important aspects of
Romanesque architecture
• “Romanesque” is the first international style since
the Roman Empire.
• Competition among cities for the largest churches,
which continues in the Gothic period via a “quest for
height.”
• Masonry (stone) the preferred medium. Craft of
concrete essentially lost in this period.
• Rejection of wooden structures or structural
elements.
• East end of church the focus for liturgical services.
West end for the entrance to church.
221. • Church portals as “billboards” for scripture or
elements of faith.
• Cruciform plans. Nave and transept at right angles to
one another. Church as a metaphor for heaven.
• Elevation of churches based on basilican forms, but
with the nave higher than the side aisles.
• Interiors articulated by repetitive series of moldings.
Heavy masonry forms seem lighter with applied
decoration.
• Bays divide the nave into compartments
• Round-headed arches the norm.
• Tripartite division of the elevation continues from
the earlier periods.
224. • The Romanesque period, from roughly 1000 to
1137 A.D., has been dubbed the "Period of the
Church Triumphant." It was during these years
that the Catholic Church was able to unify
Western Europe in a manner unparalleled since
Roman times. This is the Age of Monasticism,
when vast monastic settlements like Cluny were
becoming the focus of both the religious and
scholarly life of the Romanesque populace.
225. • This is also the Age of the Crusades, when
Western Christians sought to "liberate" the Holy
Lands. Both of these features (monasticism and
the Crusades) spurred the economy, for the
churches required mighty building campaigns
and the Crusaders (as a consequence of their
mobility) opened up new trade routes and
spurred commerce. It has been noted that the
cosmopolitan quality of Romanesque culture
was reminiscent of Roman imperial times; it is
equally appropriate to compare the unifying
power of the Pope during the 11th century A.D.
with that of the Roman Emperor. There are good
cultural reasons, thus, for naming this period
"Romanesque."
226. Political and Economic Life
The social and economic classes become
vividly clear in the Worcester Chronicle,
which depicts the three classes of
Medieval society:
• King and Nobles
• Churchmen
• Peasant farmers
227. King Henry I's Dream in the
Chronicle of John of
Worcester.
The author died in 1140 AD
so it's from before that.
Original work by John of
Worcester.
228. King Henry I and his Court returning to England
from The Chronicle of John of Worcester
229. Intellectual Life
• The 11th and 12th centuries were a time of
intellectual rebirth as Western scholars
rediscovered the classical Greek and Roman
texts that had been preserved in Islamic Spain
and the eastern Mediterranean. The first
universities were established in the growing
cities –
• Bologna
• Paris
• Oxford
• Cambridge
230. Romanesque Art
• The word Romanesque means “In the
Roman manner.”
• The word was coined in the 19th century to
describe European church architecture,
which often displayed solid masonry walls
and rounded arches and vaults
characteristic of imperial Roman buildings.
233. Pilgrimage Churches
• The growth of a cult of relics and the
desire to visit shrines such as Saint
Peter’s in Rome or Saint James in
Spain inspired people to travel on
pilgrimages. Christian victories against
Muslims also opened roads and
encouraged travel.
236. Reliquary Statue of St. Foy from the Auvergne region,
France Silver gilt over wood core, with gems and rock crystal
Late 9th century with later additions
237. This complex contains a baptistry, a church and a bell tower. The bell
tower or campanile is the most famous of all. The "Leaning tower of Pisa"
is 6 stories of arcaded galleries. Round arches were a Roman inspiration.
The foundation lies on tufu and is sinking. Efforts have been tried to raise it
upright. Most of them have been disastrous and nearly destroyed the
tower, such as when they flooded the foundation with water to "float" the
tower, which only made it lean more. It is 13 feet out of plumb.
238. • The Baptistry of Pisa is part of the church
complex, and as with most baptistries, is usually
round or octagonal in shape. The sacrament of
baptism is administered. Inside is a baptismal
front, a receptacle of stone or metal which holds
water for the rite.
**NOTE: The baptistry also kept accurate
population records in bean jars, a jar for girls
and a jar for boys. As one is born or dies the
bean is added or subtracted from the jar.
255. Cast bronze
baptismal font by
Renier de Huy,
1107–18. In the
church of Saint-
Barthélemy, Liège,
Belgium. Height 64
cm.
256. Romanesque metalwork
• In the 12th century the church
supplanted secular rulers as the chief
patron of the arts, and the work was
carried out in the larger monasteries.
Under the direction of such great
churchmen as Henry, bishop of
Winchester, and Abbot Suger of Saint-
Denis, near Paris, a new emphasis was
given to subject matter and symbolism.
257. • Craftsmen were no longer anonymous; work
by Roger of Helmarshausen, Reiner of Huy,
Godefroid de Claire (de Huy), Nicholas of
Verdun, and others can be identified; and the
parts they played as leaders of the great
centers of metalwork on the Rhine and the
Meuse are recognizable. Their greatest
achievement was the development of the
brilliant champlevé enameling, a method that
replaced the earlier cloisonné technique.
Gold and silver continued to be used as rich
settings for enamels; as the framework of
portable altars, or small devotional diptychs
or triptychs; for embossed figure work in
reliquary shrines; and for liturgical plate.
258. • The masterpieces of the period are
great house-shaped shrines made to
contain the relics of saints; for
example, the shrine of St. Heribert at
Deutz (c. 1160) and Nicholas of
Verdun's Shrine of the Three Kings at
Cologne (c. 1200). In the latter, the
figures are almost freestanding, and in
their fine, rhythmic draperies and
naturalistic movement they approach
the new Gothic style.
266. Rib Vaulting
• The barrel-vaulted spaces of early Romanesque
naves covered vast spaces and were relatively
fireproof. But the barrel vaults failed in one
critical requirement—lighting. Due to the great
outward thrust the continuous semicircular vault
exerted, a clerestory was difficult (but not
impossible) to construct. A more complex and
efficient type of vaulting was needed.
Structurally, the central problem of Romanesque
architecture was the need to develop a masonry
vault system that admitted light.
267. • A major advantage of the Gothic vault is its
flexibility, which permits the vaulting of
compartments of varying shapes. Pointed
arches also channel the weight of the vaults
more directly downward than do semicircular
arches. The vaults, therefore, require less
buttressing to hold them in place, in turn
permitting the opening up of the walls beneath
the arches with large windows. Because pointed
arches also lead the eye upward, they make the
vaults appear taller than they actually are. Both
the physical and the visual properties of rib
vaults with pointed arches aided Gothic
architects in their quest for soaring height in
church interiors.
269. Chartres Cathedral West
façade ca. 1134-1220
(note that left [north] tower
is much later than right
[south] tower)
279. The north rose window in
Chartres Cathedral, Chartres,
France
280. How were stained glass windows made?
• The earliest examples of windows with
figurative scenes are known from St. Remi
in Reims from around the year 1000.
Glass is a mixture of silicic acid and metal
oxides, which solidifies after melting. It
consists of up to 70% silicic acid, with up
to 20% alkali's for durability and soda for
fluidity.
281. • The only colors available in the Middle Ages were
saffron-yellow, purplish-red, green, blue and copper-red.
Miniatures often provided the models for the stained
glass windows. One cut the small colored glass panes to
size and then painted them with black solder/flux?
(Schwarzlot), a mixture of iron and copper powder. After
1300 silver solder/flux? (Silberlot) was also available,
which allowed for a new range of colors, for example
light yellow and reddish-yellow. The colors were melted
onto the glass.
The panes could be leaded as soon as they had cooled.
The pliable lead strips could be easily bent to shape. The
lead grid had to be carefully applied, as it provided the
frame for the pictorial design. Any cracks were then filled
with clay. Generally the complete window would then be
inserted into the masonry window frame and fixed with
mortar.
282. Creating stained glass windows
• The first stage in the production of a window is
to make, or acquire from the architect or owners
of the building, an accurate template of the
window opening that the glass was to fit.
• The subject matter of the window is determined
to suit the location, a particular theme, or the
whim of the patron. A small design called a
Vidimus is prepared which can be shown to the
patron.
283. • A traditional narrative window has panels which relate a
story. A figurative window could have rows of saints or
dignitories. Scriptural texts or mottoes are sometimes
included and perhaps the names of the patrons or the
person as whose memorial the window is dedicated. In a
window of a traditional type, it is usually at the discretion
of the designer to fill the surrounding areas with borders,
floral motifs and canopies.
• A full sized cartoon is drawn for every "light" (opening) of
the window. A small church window might typically be of
two lights, with some simple tracery lights above. A large
window might have four or five lights. The east or west
window of a large cathedral might have seven lights in
three tiers with elaborate tracery. In Medieval times the
cartoon was drawn straight onto a whitewashed table,
which was then used for cutting, painting and
assembling the window.
284. • The designer must take into account the design, the
structure of the window, the nature and size of the glass
available and his own preferred technique. The cartoon
is then be divided into a patchwork as a template for
each small glass piece. The exact position of the lead
which holds the glass in place is part of the calculated
visual effect.
• Each piece of glass is selected for the desired color and
cut to match a section of the template. An exact fit is
ensured by grozing the edges with a tool which can
nibble off small pieces.
• Details of faces, hair and hands can be painted onto the
inner surface of the glass in a special glass paint which
contains finely ground lead or copper filings, ground
glass, gum Arabic and a medium such as wine, vinegar
or (traditionally) urine. The art of painting details became
increasingly elaborate and reached its height in the early
20th century.
285. • Once the window is cut and painted, the pieces are assembled by
slotting them into H-sectioned lead cames. The joints are then all
soldered together and the glass pieces are stopped from rattling and
the window made weatherproof by forcing a soft oily cement or
mastic between the glass and the cames.
• Traditionally, when the windows were inserted into the window
spaces, iron rods were put across at various points, to support the
weight of the window, which was tied to the rods by copper wire.
Some very large early Gothic windows are divided into sections by
heavy metal frames called ferramenta. This method of support was
also favored for large, usually painted, windows of the Baroque
period.
• From 1300 onwards, artists started using silver stain which was made
with silver nitrate. It gave a yellow effect ranging from pale lemon to
deep orange. It was usually painted onto the outside of a piece of
glass, then fired to make it permanent. This yellow was particularly
useful for enhancing borders, canopies and haloes, and turning blue
glass into green glass for green grass.
• By about 1450 a stain known as Cousin's rose was used to enhance
flesh tones.
286. Notre-Dame de Paris (1163 – c. 1350)
Gothic cathedral on the Île de la Cité in Paris.
287. Notre-Dame de Paris
(1163 – c. 1350) Gothic
cathedral on the Île de la
Cité in Paris. Probably the
most famous Gothic
cathedral, Notre-Dame is
a superb example of the
Rayonnant style. Two
massive Early Gothic
towers (1210 – 50) crown
the western facade, which
is divided into three stories
and has doors adorned
with Early Gothic carvings and surmounted by a row of figures of Old
Testament kings. The single-arch flying buttresses at the eastern end
are notable for their boldness and grace. Its three great rose windows,
which retain their 13th-century glass, are of awe-inspiring beauty.
288. The Rayonnant Style
• The glass is heavily colored, the masonry
heavily painted, and there is much carved detail.
One of the characteristics of the second half of
the 13th century is that glass became lighter,
painting decreased, and the amount of carved
decoration dwindled. Thus, in its chronological
context, the Sainte-Chapelle is a Janus-like
building--Rayonnant in its architecture but, in
some ways, old-fashioned in its decoration.
289. • In a sense, the Rayonnant style was
technically a simple one. Depending, as it
did, not primarily on engineering expertise
or on sensitivity in the handling of
architectural volumes and masses but on
the manipulation of geometric shapes
normally in two dimensions, the main
prerequisites were a drawing board and
an office.
290. Romanesque vs. Gothic
(Abbey of St. Etienne, Caen)
Nave (1064-1120) Choir (c. 1200)
Clerestory
Triforium
Main
arcade
Vaulting
291. Rayonnant: St. Chapelle
Rayonnant (Decorated Gothic in England) was
characterized by the application of increasingly
elaborate geometrical decoration
292. More St. Chapelle
During the period of the
Rayonnant style a
significant change took
place in Gothic
architecture. After 1250,
Gothic architects became
more concerned with the
creation of rich visual
effects through
decoration. This
decoration took such
forms as pinnacles
(upright members, often
spired, that capped piers,
buttresses, or other
exterior elements),
moldings, and, especially,
window tracery.
(Some classify this as Flamboyant)
293. Martin Le Franc, Manuscript
on vellum, in French,
illuminated by the Master of
the Échevinage de
Rouen.France, Rouen, c.
1465-75.
Blanche of Castile, Louis IX, and two
monks, moralized Bible, 1226-1234,
(Paris)
294. Art Patronage and Function of
Medieval Manuscripts
• Art patronage is an active collaboration between the artist and the
patron leading to completion of a work of art. In the Middle Ages it
was of essential importance for the artistic creation; both sides
provided contributions to the realization of the project without which
no medieval work of art could have been made. We can see the
phenomenon of patronage of book production in the Middle Ages
from two angles: the collective ownership of books intended for the
common use by a religious community and the individual patronage
of a religious person or layman, the phenomenon that gradually took
over during the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries. The books
ordered for individual use mirror a variety of personal interests. They
were collected for the purpose of self-education and study,
satisfying one's eagerness for information. A phenomenon of ardent
bibliophile interest also occurs relatively frequently during the Middle
Ages. Finally, a specific kind of a book intended for private devotion
and contemplation of an individual was favored in the Late Middle
Ages.
295. • The finest books belonged to the most powerful
people, the highest aristocracy. Saint Louis was
an avid collector. This is the dedication page
from a Moralized Bible painted for the Queen
mother and King Louis IX. Above we see the two
in architectural frames much like those for
sculpture on the cathedrals. Below in a similar
frame are the monks, one writing and painting
the text in a manuscript while the older one
dictates it. If we look at the page before him, the
younger monk has divided the page into two
columns and set four rondels, the format for
moralized bible comparisons. Again in this
format too we can see formulas we have already
seen in the glass windows of the cathedrals .
296. • Though we saw these forms first in the
architecture, there is no reason to think that the
formulas weren’t developed as significantly in
manuscript and decorative arts forms at the
same time.
• The actual process of manuscript illumination
was a compounded one, involving a number of
skills, from the manufacture of parchment from
sheep skin to the manufacture of pens and inks,
bindings for pages into books and so on. This
manufacturing process involved a good number
of people in a well financed workshop.
297. Gothic Art In England
• In England the early Gothic phase had its own
particular character (epitomized by Salisbury
Cathedral) that is known as the early English Gothic
style (c. 1200-1300 AD). The first mature example of
the style was the nave and choir of Lincoln
Cathedral (begun in 1192).
• Early English Gothic churches differed in several
respects from their French counterparts. They had
thicker, heavier walls that were not much changed
from Romanesque proportions; accentuated,
repeated moldings on the edges of interior arches; a
sparing use of tall, slender, pointed lancet windows;
and nave piers consisting of a central column of
light-colored stone surrounded by a number of
slimmer attached columns made of black purbeck
marble.
298. • Early English churches also established
other stylistic features that were to
distinguish all of English Gothic: great length
and little attention to height; a nearly equal
emphasis on horizontal and vertical lines in
the stringcourses and elevations of the
interior; a square termination of the
building's eastern end rather than a
semicircular eastern projection; scant use of
flying buttresses; and a piecemeal,
asymmetrical conception of the ground plan
of the church. Other outstanding examples of
the early English style are the nave and west
front of Wells Cathedral (c. 1180-c. 1245) and
the choirs and transept of Rochester
Cathedral.
299. This Beatus page with its
appealing picture of the graceful
young David playing the harp
represents some of the most
refined English painting of its
time and is one of a group of
manuscripts showing a court
style at the end of the thirteenth
century and in the first decade of
the fourteenth century. Other
manuscripts sharing features of
this style but without known royal
connections are the Windmill
Psalter (now Pierpont Morgan
Library, New York, M.102) and
the opening page of the
Peterborough Psalter in Brussels
301. The spire of Salisbury
Cathedral—the tallest in
England at 123m
(404 ft)—soars to the
heavens, and marked a
revolution in cathedral
architecture when it was
built 800 years ago.
303. Shrine of the Three Kings at Cologne Cathedral,
c. 1190 – c. 1205
304. The Shrine of the Three Kings
• Reliquary said to contain the bones of the
Three Wise Men, also known as the Three
Kings or the Magi. The shrine is a large
gilded and decorated triple sarcophagus
placed above and behind the high altar of
Cologne Cathedral. It is considered the
high point of Mosan art and the largest
reliquary in the western world.
306. Dormition of the Virgin, Coronation of the Virgin,
Tympana, South Transept Portal, Strasbourg Cathedral
• According to the legend, the Virgin died at
age 60, surrounded by the Apostles who
had been miraculously transported to her
deathbed from all parts of the world. Christ
too, depicted with a halo, is in the center,
prepared to take her soul (the small child
in his hand) to Heaven. This lyrical scene
depicts various figures in sorrow.
308. Saint Maurice in the Cathedral of
Magdeburg, Magdeburg, Germany,
next to the grave of Otto I, Holy
Roman Emperor. The cathedral is
actually named "cathedral of Saints
Catherine and Maurice" after Saint
Maurice and Saint Catherine of
Alexandria. The sculpture was
created around 1250, and is
considered to be the first realistic
depiction of an ethnic African in
Europe. Unfortunately, the figure is
no longer complete and misses the
lower legs and an item in the right
hand, presumably a lance.
309. Ekkehard and Uta, from
Naumburg Cathedral.
c. 1249-1255
Painted limestone,
approx. 6' 2" high
310. Ekkehard and Uta
• Ekkehard and Uta are among a group of life size
sculptures of 12 ancestors of a bishop who was
a member of the ruling family of Naumburg. The
ancestors were patrons of the church; their
images were placed in a new chapel at the west
end of the church. Unlike the more idealized
French Gothic sculptures, Ekkehard and Uta are
treated in a highly individualistic manner, in a
style akin to Greek Hellenistic.
• They reveal a strong naturalistic trend in
German Gothic Sculpture
311. Assisi's Basilica of Saint Francis
• In 1226 St. Francis was buried (with the outcasts he had stood
by) outside of his town on the "hill of the damned." Now called
the "Hill of Paradise," this is one of the artistic highlights of
medieval Europe. It's frescoed from top to bottom by the
leading artists of the day: Cimabue, Giotto, Simone Martini, and
Pietro Lorenzetti. A 13th-century historian wrote "No more
exquisite monument to the Lord has been built."
• From a distance you see the huge arcades "supporting" the
basilica. These were 15th-century quarters for the monks. The
arcades lining the square leading to the church housed
medieval pilgrims.
• There are three parts to the church: upper basilica, lower
basilica, and the saint's tomb (below the lower basilica). In the
1997 earthquake, the lower basilica (with nine-foot-thick walls)
was undamaged. The upper basilica (with three-foot-thick walls
and bigger windows) was damaged. Restoration was
completed in November 1999.
314. Adoration of the Magi (detail) by
Nicola Pisano, c. 1259–60; part of
the marble pulpit in the Baptistery
at Pisa.
315. "The Annunciation and the Nativity," detail of pulpit of Pisa Cathedral
baptistery, by Nicola Pisano, 1259-1260. The marble relief displays an
interest in Roman art and is similar the sculpture on ancient Roman
sarcophagi.
316. Nicola Pisano
Sculptor whose work, along with that of his son Giovanni
and other artists employed in their workshops, created a
new sculptural style for the late 13th and the 14th
centuries in Italy.
This pulpit in the Baptistry is Nicola's earliest
authenticated work. The hexagonal pulpit is divided into
three registers: the lower with lions and other figures,
with the lions depicted as vanquishing prey--a
Romanesque symbol for Christianity triumphing over
paganism. The middle level depicts personified Virtues
and Prophets, and the upper, has reliefs depicting
events in the life of Christ. Classical influences are
evident in the style with some of the deeply cut figures
traced to Roman sources.
317. Arnolfo di Cambio, Francesco Talenti, Andrea Orcagna, and
others. Florence Cathedral, Florence. Begun 1296;
redesigned 1357 and 1366; drum and dome by
Brunelleschi,1420 - 36; campanile by Giotto, Andrea Pisano,
and Francesco Talenti, c.1334 - 50
318. Coppo di Marcovaldo.
Crucifix, from Tuscany,
Italy. c. 1250 - 1300.
Tempera and gold on
wood panel, (2.93 x
2.47 m). Pinacoteca,
San Gimignano, Italy
319. Saint Francis
Master. Miracle of
the Crib of Greccio,
fresco in upper
church of San
Francesco, Assisi,
Italy. c. 1295 -
1301/30
320. Marble tabernacle
designed and sculpted
by Andrea Orcagna
between 1349 and 1359.
Late Gothic work
finished and enriched
with enamel and
precious stones. The
painting on the panel is
the work of Bernardo
Daddi, dated 1347.
322. • Fourteenth-century Europe was ravaged
by famine, war, and, most devastatingly,
the Black Plague. These widespread
crises inspired a mystical religiosity, which
emphasized both ecstatic joy and extreme
suffering, producing emotionally charged
and often graphic depictions of the
Crucifixion and the martyrdoms of the
saints.
323. • While the great boom of cathedral building that
had marked the previous century waned,
cathedrals continued to serve as the centers of
religious life and artistic creation. Wealthy
patrons sponsored the production of elaborate
altarpieces, as well as smaller panel paintings
and religious statues for private devotional use.
A growing literate elite created a demand for
both richly decorated prayer books and volumes
on secular topics. In Italy, the foremost Sienese
painter, Duccio, sought to synthesize northern,
Gothic influences with eastern, Byzantine ones,
while the groundbreaking Florentine Giotto
moved toward the depiction of three-dimensional
figures in his wall paintings.
324. Fourteenth-century collapse
• The fourteenth century saw a series of
catastrophes that caused the European
economy to go into recession.
• The Medieval Warm Period was ending as
the transition to the Little Ice Age began.
This change in climate saw agricultural
output decline significantly, leading to
repeated famines, exacerbated by the
rapid population growth of the earlier era.
325. • The Hundred Years' War began between England and
France, disrupting trade throughout northwest Europe,
most notably when, in 1345, King Edward III of England
repudiated his debts, leading to the collapse of the two
largest Florentine banks, those of the Bardi and Peruzzi.
• In the east, war was also disrupting trade routes as the
Ottoman Empire began to expand throughout the region.
Most devastating, though, was the Black Death that
decimated the populations of the densely populated
cities of Northern Italy. The population of Florence, for
instance, fell from 90,000 to 50,000 people.
• Widespread disorder followed, including a revolt of
Florentine textile workers, the ciompi, in 1378.
326. The Duomo - Florence Cathedral. Drawing with cross-section
of interior. 1294 plan 1296-1420
327. The original design was by
the architect and sculptor,
Arnolfo di Cambio, but his
plans were later revised and
enlarged after the decision
of a panel of architects and
painters. The new designer
was Francesco Talenti.
In 1420,Filippo Brunelleschi
started building the
enormous dome, il cupola,
and finally on March 25,
1436 Pope Eugene IV
consecrated the Cathedral
of Santa Maria del Fiore.
328. The Dome of the Florence Cathedral was designed and built
by Filippo Brunelleschi in 1425.
329. South Door of the
Baptistery of San
Giovanni
Andrea Pisano
1336
Gilded bronze
Florence, Baptistery of
San Giovanni
330. Cenni di Pepo (Giovanni)
• Better known by his nickname “Cimabue” (c. 1240 —
c. 1302) also known as Bencivieni Di Pepo or in modern
Italian, Benvenuto Di Giuseppe, was an Italian painter
and creator of mosaics from Florence. He is also well
known for his student Giotto, who revolutionized painting
in Italy. Cimabue is generally regarded as the last great
painter working in the Byzantine tradition. The art of this
period comprised scenes and forms that appeared
relatively flat and highly stylized. Cimabue was a pioneer
in the move towards naturalism, as his figures were
depicted with rather more life-like proportions and
shading.
331. "Madonna Enthroned
with Angels and
Prophets," by Cimabue,
ca. 1280-1290. Tempera
on wood, 12' 7" x 7' 4".
Galleria degli Uffizi,
Florence. Cimabue's art
is influenced by the
Byzantine style.
332. Giotto di Bondone
• Giotto di Bondone (c. 1267 – January 8, 1337), better
known simply as Giotto, was an Italian painter and architect
from Florence. He is generally considered the first in a line
of great artists who contributed to the Italian Renaissance.
• The 16th-century biographer Giorgio Vasari state that "...He
made a decisive break with the ...Byzantine style, and
brought to life the great art of painting as we know it today,
introducing the technique of drawing accurately from life,
which had been neglected for more than two hundred
years."
• Giotto's masterwork is the decoration of the Scrovegni
Chapel in Padua, commonly called the Arena Chapel,
completed around 1305. This fresco cycle depicts the life of
the Virgin and the passion of Christ. It is regarded as one of
the supreme masterpieces of the Early Renaissance.
333. "Madonna and Child
Enthroned," by Giotto,
ca.1310. Tempera on
panel, 10'8" X 6' 8 1/4".
Galleria degli Uffizi,
Florence.
335. • The Arena Chapel (so-called because it occupies the
site of a Roman arena) was built by Enrico Scrovegni in
expiation for the sins of his father, a notorious usurer
mentioned by Dante. It was begun in 1303 and Giotto's
frescos are usually dated c. 1305-06. They run right
round the interior of the building; the west wall is covered
with a Last Judgement, there is an Annunciation over the
chancel arch, and the main wall areas have three tiers of
paintings representing scenes from the life of the Virgin
and her parents, St Anne and St Joachim, and events
from the Passion of Christ.
337. Virgin and Child in Majesty (Maesta)," by Duccio di
Buoninsegna. Main panel of Maessta Altarpiece,
from Sienna Cathedral. 1308 - 11. Tempera and gold
on wood, 7' X 13' 6
338. The Nativity
with the Prophets Isaiah and Ezekiel (1308-1311)
Duccio di Buoninsegna
339. Cennino d'Andrea Cennini
(c. 1370 – c. 1440)
• Italian painter influenced by Giotto. He was a student of Agnolo
Gaddi.
• Cennini was born in Colle Val d'Elsa, Tuscany.
• He is remembered mainly for having authored Il libro dell'arte,
often translated as The Craftsman's Handbook. Written in the
early 15th century, the book is a "how to" on . It contains
information on pigments, brushes, panel painting, the art of
fresco, and techniques and tricks, including detailed instructions
for underdrawing, underpainting and overpainting in egg
tempera. Cennini also provides an early, if somewhat crude,
discussion of painting in oils. His discussion of oil painting was
important for dispelling the myth, propagated by Giorgio Vasari
and Karel Van Mander, that oil painting was invented by Jan
van Eyck (although Theophilus (Roger of Helmerhausen)
clearly gives instructions for oil-based painting in his treatise,
On Divers Arts, written in 1125).
340. Ambrogio Lorenzetti
Effects of Good Government on the City
Fresco in the Palazzo Publico (Siena, 1338-1340)
341. Allegory of Good Government, Ambrogio
Lorenzetti, fresco, c. 1338-1339, Palazzo
Pubblico, Siena, Italy (Gothic-Early
Renaissance).
342. Allegory of Good Government, Ambrogio Lorenzetti,
fresco, c. 1338-1339, Palazzo Pubblico, Siena, Italy
(Gothic-Early Renaissance).
343. Buon Fresco-Italian for true
fresco, is a fresco painting
technique — in which alkaline
resistant pigments, ground in
water, are applied to wet plaster.
It is distinguished from the fresco-secco
(or a secco) and finto fresco
techniques, in which paints are
applied to dried plaster..
345. France
• Manuscript illumination was a favorite of French
kings and high-ranking nobles. A French king,
possibly Louis XI, sits surrounded by elegantly
dressed courtiers in this miniature, which
accompanies a letter describing courtly life in
bluntly critical terms. The king looks directly out
at the viewer instead of paying attention to his
courtiers, echoing the text's claim that the king
neglected the troubles and burdens of those
around him.
346. Jean Pucelle (c. 1300 – 1355)
• Parisian Gothic-era manuscript illuminator,
active between 1320 and 1350. His style
is characterized by delicate figures
rendered in grisaille, accented with
touches of color. Pucelle's most famous
work is the The Hours of Jeanne d'Evreux,
c. 1324-1328.
347. • Grisaille (grĭ-zī', -zāl'; French: gris, grey)
is a term for painting executed entirely in
monochrome, usually in shades of grey or
brown, particularly used in decoration to
represent objects in relief. Italian
examples may be described as work in
chiaroscuro, although this term has other
meanings as well. Some grisailles in fact
include a slightly wider colour range, like
the Andrea del Sarto illustrated.
348. The Hours of Jeanne d'Évreux, ca. 1324–1328 Jean Pucelle (French,
active in Paris, ca. 1320–34) French; Made in Paris
Grisaille and tempera on vellum; 3 1/2 x 2 7/16 in. (8.9 x 6.2 cm)
The Cloisters Collection, 1954 (54.1.2)
349. Sequence of Events
c. 1307 -21 Dante writes The Devine
Comedy
1307-77 Papacy transferred from
Rome to Avignon
1348 Arrival of Black Death to
mainland Europe
1378 – 1417 Great Schism in Catholic
Church
1396 Greek studies instituted in
Florence; beginning or the
revival of Greek literature
351. Sculpture
• Sculpture of the 14th century is exemplified
by its intimate character. Religious
subjects became more emotionally
expressive. In the secular realm chivalry
was revived just as the era of the Knight
on horseback was rendered obsolete.
Tales of love and valor were carved on
luxury items to the delight of the rich,
middle class, and aristocracy alike.
352. Casket with Scenes of Romances (Attack on the Castle of Love)
Lid of box – Paris, c. 1330-50 Ivory with iron mounts 4 ½ x 9 11/16”
French Gothic ivory casket made in Paris between 1330 and 1350
353. • The casket is one of the relatively few larger
ivory caskets dealing with a secular theme from
the period, one of about a dozen examples
showing variations of a number of scenes,
• By this period, Paris was the main European
centre of ivory carving, producing large numbers
of religious and secular objects, including small
diptychs with religious scenes that used the
same relief technique; these and smaller secular
objects such as mirror-cases are more common
than these caskets or larger religious statues
like the Virgin and Child from the Sainte-
Chapelle of the 1260s.
354. • This casket may well have been a gift of
courtship or upon marriage, and was probably
intended for an aristocratic female owner, to
keep her jewels and other valuables in. The
carved scenes were possibly originally painted;
as the paint on Gothic ivories tended to peel in
places, it was very often removed by later
dealers and collectors. The unusually large size
of the piece allows a wide range of the repertoire
of popular scenes from different literary sources
in French Gothic art to be shown, which display
a variety of medieval attitudes to love and the
role of women.
355. Virgin and Child
from Saint-Denis
silver gilt and
enamel
ca. 1339
356. Peter Parler
• German architect, best-known for building
Saint Vitus Cathedral and Charles Bridge
in Prague, where he lived since about
1356.
357. • Peter Parler became the master mason of
Saint Vitus Cathedral in 1352, after the
death of its original architect, Matthias of
Arras. Apart from the cathedral, he was
the main designer of the New Town of
Prague and built Charles Bridge and its
towers. In the Royal Palace of Prague
Castle, Parler built the All Saints' Chapel.
After the fire of 1541 it was redecorated in
the Baroque style.