2. Introduction
What is a Furnace
• Equipment to melt metals
– Casting
– Change shape
– Change properties
• Type of fuel important
– Mostly liquid/gaseous fuel or electricity
• Low efficiencies due to
– High operating temperature
– Emission of hot exhaust gases
3. Chimney:
remove
combustion
gases
Burners: raise or
maintain chamber
temperature
Furnace chamber:
constructed of
insulating materials
Hearth: support or
carry the steel.
Consists of
refractory materials
Charging & discharging doors for
loading & unloading stock
Charging & discharging doors for
loading & unloading stock
Furnace Components
4. Introduction
What are Refractories
Materials that
– Withstand high temperatures and sudden changes
– Withstand action of molten slag, glass, hot gases etc
– Withstand load at service conditions
– Withstand abrasive forces
– Conserve heat
– Have low coefficient of thermal expansion
– Will not contaminate the load
6. Properties of Refractories
• Melting point
– Temperature at which a ‘test pyramid’ (cone) fails to support its
own weight
• Size
– Affects stability of furnace structure
• Bulk density
– Amount of refractory material within a volume (kg/m3)
– High bulk density = high volume stability, heat capacity and
resistance
• Porosity
– Volume of open pores as % of total refractory volume
– Low porosity = less penetration of molten material
• Cold crushing strength
– Resistance of refractory to crushing
• Creep at high temperature
– Deformation of refractory material under stress at given time and
temperature
7. Properties of Refractories
• Pyrometric cones
– Used in ceramic industries
to test ‘refractoriness’ of
refractory bricks
– Each cone is mix of oxides
that melt at specific
temperatures
• Pyrometric Cone Equivalent (PCE)
• Temperature at which the refractory brick and the cone
bend
• Refractory cannot be used above this temp
• Volume stability, expansion & shrinkage
– Permanent changes during refractory service life
– Occurs at high temperatures
• Reversible thermal expansion
– Phase transformations during heating and cooling
8. Properties of Refractories
• Thermal conductivity
– Depends on composition and silica content
– Increases with rising temperature
• High thermal conductivity:
– Heat transfer through brickwork required
– E.g. recuperators, regenerators
• Low thermal conductivity:
– Heat conservation required (insulating refractories)
– E.g. heat treatment furnaces
9. Type of Refractories
Fireclay Refractories
• Common in industry: materials available and inexpensive
• Consist of aluminium silicates
• Decreasing melting point (PCE) with increasing impurity and
decreasing Al2O3
High Alumina Refractories
• 45 - 100% alumina
• High alumina % = high refractoriness
• Applications: hearth and shaft of blast furnaces, ceramic kilns,
cement kilns, glass tanks
10. Type of Refractories
Silica Brick
• >93% SiO2 made from quality rocks
• Iron & steel, glass industry
• Advantages: no softening until fusion point is reached; high
refractoriness; high resistance to spalling, flux and slag,
volume stability
Magnesite
• Chemically basic: >85% magnesium oxide
• Properties depend on silicate bond concentration
• High slag resistance, especially lime and iron
11. Type of Refractories
Chromite Refractories
• Chrome- magnesite
– 15-35% Cr2O3 and 42-50% MgO
– Used for critical parts of high temp furnaces
– Withstand corrosive slags
– High refractories
• Magnesite-chromite
– >60% MgO and 8-18% Cr2O3
– High temp resistance
– Basic slags in steel melting
– Better spalling resistance
12. Type of Refractories
Zirconia Refractories
• Zirconium dioxide ZrO2
• Stabilized with calcium, magnesium, etc.
• High strength, low thermal conductivity, not reactive, low
thermal loss
• Used in glass furnaces, insulating refractory
13. Selecting the Right Refractory
Selection criteria
• Type of furnace
• Type of metal charge
• Presence of slag
• Area of application
• Working temperatures
• Extent of abrasion and
impact
• Structural load of furnace
• Stress due to temp gradient &
fluctuations
• Chemical compatibility
• Heat transfer & fuel
conservation
• Costs
27. To succeed in your mission , you must have single – minded
devotion to your goal.
Dr A P J Abdul Kalam
Editor's Notes
A furnace is an equipment used to melt metals for casting or to heat materials to change their shape (e.g. rolling, forging) or properties (heat treatment).
Since flue gases from the fuel come in direct contact with the materials, the type of fuel chosen is important. For example, some materials will not tolerate sulphur in the fuel, in which case you can use light diesel oil. Solid fuels generate particulate matter, which will interfere the materials placed inside the furnace, therefore coal is not often used as fuel.
Furnace ideally should heat as much of material as possible to a uniform temperature with the least possible fuel and labor. The key to efficient furnace operation lies in complete combustion of fuel with minimum excess air. Furnaces operate with relatively low efficiencies (as low as 7 percent) compared to other combustion equipment such as the boiler (with efficiencies higher than 90 percent. This is caused by the high operating temperatures in the furnace. For example, a furnace heating materials to 1200 oC will emit exhaust gases at 1200 oC or more, which results in significant heat losses through the chimney.
Any material can be described as a ‘refractory,’ if it can withstand the action of abrasive or corrosive solids, liquids or gases at high temperatures. The various combinations of operating conditions in which refractories are used, make it necessary to manufacture a range of refractory materials with different properties. Refractory materials are made in varying combinations and shapes depending on their applications. General requirements of a refractory material are:
Withstand high temperatures
Withstand sudden changes of temperatures
Withstand action of molten metal slag, glass, hot gases, etc
Withstand load at service conditions
Withstand load and abrasive forces
Conserve heat
Have low coefficient of thermal expansion
Should not contaminate the material with which it comes into contact
Melting point: Pure substances melt instantly at a specific temperature. Most refractory materials consist of particles bonded together that have high melting temperatures. At high temperatures, these particles melt and form slag. The melting point of the refractory is the temperature at which a test pyramid (cone) fails to support its own weight.
Size: The size and shape of the refractories is a part of the design of the furnace, since it affects the stability of the furnace structure. Accurate size is extremely important to properly fit the refractory shape inside the furnace and to minimize space between construction joints.
Bulk density: The bulk density is useful property of refractories, which is the amount of refractory material within a volume (kg/m3). An increase in bulk density of a given refractory increases its volume stability, heat capacity and resistance to slag penetration.
Pyrometric cones and Pyrometric cones equivalent (PCE):
The ‘refractoriness’ of (refractory) bricks is the temperature at which the refractory bends because it can no longer support its own weight. Pyrometric cones are used in ceramic industries to test the refractoriness of the (refractory) bricks and thus determine what refractory bricks they should use.
They consist of a mixture of oxides that are known to melt at a specific narrow temperature range.
Cones with different oxide composition are placed in sequence of their melting temperature alongside a row of refractory bricks in a furnace. The furnace is fired and the temperature rises.
One cone will bends together with the refractory brick as shown in the figure. This is the temperature range in oC above which the refractory cannot be used. This is known as Pyrometric Cone Equivalent temperatures.
Thermal conductivity:
Thermal conductivity depends on the chemical and mineralogical composition and silica content of the refractory and on the application temperature.
The conductivity usually changes with rising temperature.
High thermal conductivity of a refractory is desirable when heat transfer though brickwork is required, for example in recuperators, regenerators, muffles, etc.
Low thermal conductivity is desirable for conservation of heat, as the refractory acts as an insulator. Additional insulation conserves heat but at the same time increases the hot face temperature and hence a better quality refractory is required. Because of this, the outside roofs of open-hearth furnaces are normally not insulated, as this could cause the roof to collapse. Lightweight refractories of low thermal conductivity find wider applications in low temperature heat treatment furnaces, for example in batch type furnaces where the low heat capacity of the refractory structure minimizes the heat stored during the intermittent heating and cooling cycles. Insulating refractories have very low thermal conductivity.
Fireclay Refractories
Firebrick is the most common form of refractory material. It is used extensively in the iron and steel industry, nonferrous metallurgy, glass industry, pottery kilns, cement industry, and many others.
Fireclay refractories, such as firebricks, siliceous fireclays and aluminous clay refractories consist of aluminum silicates with varying silica (SiO2) content of up to 78 percent and Al2O3 content of up to 44 percent.
The table shows that the melting point (PCE) of fireclay brick decreases with increasing impurity and decreasing Al2O3. This material is often used in furnaces, kilns and stoves because the materials are widely available and relatively inexpensive.
(Click once) High alumina refractories
Alumina silicate refractories containing more than 45 percent alumina are generally termed as high alumina materials. The alumina concentration ranges from 45 to 100 percent. The refractoriness of high alumina refractories increases with increase in alumina percentage. The applications of high alumina refractories include the hearth and shaft of blast furnaces, ceramic kilns, cement kilns, glass tanks and crucibles for melting a wide range of metals.
Fireclay Refractories
Firebrick is the most common form of refractory material. It is used extensively in the iron and steel industry, nonferrous metallurgy, glass industry, pottery kilns, cement industry, and many others.
Fireclay refractories, such as firebricks, siliceous fireclays and aluminous clay refractories consist of aluminum silicates with varying silica (SiO2) content of up to 78 percent and Al2O3 content of up to 44 percent.
The table shows that the melting point (PCE) of fireclay brick decreases with increasing impurity and decreasing Al2O3. This material is often used in furnaces, kilns and stoves because the materials are widely available and relatively inexpensive.
(Click once) High alumina refractories
Alumina silicate refractories containing more than 45 percent alumina are generally termed as high alumina materials. The alumina concentration ranges from 45 to 100 percent. The refractoriness of high alumina refractories increases with increase in alumina percentage. The applications of high alumina refractories include the hearth and shaft of blast furnaces, ceramic kilns, cement kilns, glass tanks and crucibles for melting a wide range of metals.
Fireclay Refractories
Firebrick is the most common form of refractory material. It is used extensively in the iron and steel industry, nonferrous metallurgy, glass industry, pottery kilns, cement industry, and many others.
Fireclay refractories, such as firebricks, siliceous fireclays and aluminous clay refractories consist of aluminum silicates with varying silica (SiO2) content of up to 78 percent and Al2O3 content of up to 44 percent.
The table shows that the melting point (PCE) of fireclay brick decreases with increasing impurity and decreasing Al2O3. This material is often used in furnaces, kilns and stoves because the materials are widely available and relatively inexpensive.
(Click once) High alumina refractories
Alumina silicate refractories containing more than 45 percent alumina are generally termed as high alumina materials. The alumina concentration ranges from 45 to 100 percent. The refractoriness of high alumina refractories increases with increase in alumina percentage. The applications of high alumina refractories include the hearth and shaft of blast furnaces, ceramic kilns, cement kilns, glass tanks and crucibles for melting a wide range of metals.
Silica brick
Silica brick (or Dinas) is a refractory that contains at least 93 percent SiO2. The raw material is quality rocks.
Various grades of silica brick have found extensive use in the iron and steel melting furnaces and the glass industry.
Advantages are
The outstanding property of silica brick is that it does not begin to soften under high loads until its fusion point is approached. This behavior contrasts with that of many other refractories, for example alumina silicate materials, which begin to fuse and creep at temperatures considerably lower than their fusion points.
High resistance to thermal shock (spalling)
High refractoriness.
Flux and slag resistance
Volume stability
(Click once) Magnesite
Magnesite refractories are chemically basic materials, containing at least 85 percent magnesium oxide. They are made from naturally occurring magnesite (MgCO3).
The properties of magnesite refractories depend on the concentration of silicate bond at the operating temperatures. Good quality magnesite usually results from a CaO-SiO2 ratio of less than two with a minimum ferrite concentration, particularly if the furnaces lined with the refractory operate in oxidizing and reducing conditions.
The slag resistance is very high particularly to lime and iron rich slags.
Chromite refractories
Two types of chromite refractories are distinguished:
Chrome-magnesite refractories, which usually contain 15-35 percent Cr2O3 and 42-50 percent MgO. They are made in a wide range of qualities and are used for building the critical parts of high temperature furnaces. These materials can withstand corrosive slags and gases and have high refractoriness.
Magnesite-chromite refractories, which contain at least 60 percent MgO and 8-18 percent Cr2O3. They are suitable for service at the highest temperatures and for contact with the most basic slags used in steel melting. Magnesite-chromite usually has a better spalling resistance than chrome-magnesite.
Zirconia refractories
Zirconium dioxide (ZrO2) is a polymorphic material.
It is essential to stabilize it before application as a refractory, which is achieved by incorporating small quantities of calcium, magnesium and cerium oxide, etc. Its properties depend mainly on the degree of stabilization, quantity of stabilizer and quality of the original raw material.
Zirconia refractories have a very high strength at room temperature, which is maintained up to temperatures as high as 1500 oC. They are therefore useful as high temperature construction materials in furnaces and kilns.
The thermal conductivity of zirconium dioxide is much lower than that of most other refractories and the material is therefore used as a high temperature insulating refractory.
Zirconia exhibits very low thermal losses and does not react readily with liquid metals, and is particularly useful for making refractory crucibles and other vessels for metallurgical purposes. Glass furnaces use zirconia because it is not easily wetted by molten glasses and does not react easily with glass.
(Click once) Oxide refractories (Alumina)
Alumina refractory materials that consist of aluminium oxide with little traces of impurities are known as pure alumina.
Alumina is one of the most chemically stable oxides known. It is mechanically very strong, insoluble in water, super heated steam, and most inorganic acids and alkalies.
Its properties make it suitable for the shaping of crucibles for fusing sodium carbonate, sodium hydroxide and sodium peroxide.
It has a high resistance in oxidizing and reducing atmosphere. Alumina is extensively used in heat processing industries. Highly porous alumina is used for lining furnaces operating up to 1850oC
We discussed the different types of refractories earlier. But despite the advantages of some refractories over others, it is important to select the right refractory for the specific application.
The selection of refractories aims to maximize the performance of the furnace, kiln or boiler. Furnace manufacturers or users should consider the following points in the selection of a refractory:
Type of furnace
Type of metal charge
Presence of slag
Area of application
Working temperatures
Extent of abrasion and impact
Structural load of the furnace
Stress due to temperature gradient in the structures and temperature fluctuations
Chemical compatibility to the furnace environment
Heat transfer and fuel conservation
Cost considerations
