Introduction to educational psychology & hgd

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Educational Psychology (BEd-Hons) by Hina Jalal
EDUCATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY
What is Psychology?
The word, ‘Psychology’ is derived from two Greek words, ‘Psyche’ and ‘Logos’. Psyche means ‘soul’
and ‘Logos’ means ‘science’. Thus, psychology was first defined as the ‘science of soul”.
According to earlier psychologists, the function of psychology was to study the nature, origin and
destiny of the human soul. But soul is something metaphysical. It cannot be seen, observed and
touched and we cannot make scientific experiments on soul.
In the 18th
century, psychology was understood as the ‘Science of Mind’. William James (1892)
defined psychology as the science of mental processes. But the word ‘mind ‘is also quite ambiguous
as there was confusion regarding the nature and functions of mind.
Modern psychologists defined psychology as the “Science of Consciousness”. James Sully (1884)
defined psychology as the “Science of the Inner World”. Wilhelm Wundt (1892) defined psychology
as the science which studies the “internal experiences. But there are three levels of consciousness –
conscious, subconscious and the unconscious and so this definition also was not accepted by some.
Thus, psychology first lost its soul, then its mind and then its consciousness.
At present only its behaviour exists. William McDougall (1905) defined psychology as the “Science
of Behaviour”, W.B. Pillsbury (1911) and J.B. Watson (1912) also defined psychology as the science
of behaviour. Behaviour generally means overt activities which can observed and measured
scientifically. But one’s behaviour is always influenced by his experiences. So, when we study one’s
behaviour, we must also study his experiences. Psychology should, therefore, be defined as a “science
of behaviour and experiences on human beings” (B.F. Skinner).
What is Educational Psychology?
Education: the act or process of imparting or acquiring general knowledge, developing the powers
of reasoning and judgment, and generally of preparing oneself or others intellectually for mature life.
Psychology is defined as the profession that studies human/animal behaviour.
Therefore, educational psychology deals with a range of human behaviour involved in the educational
process including human development, learning, memory, motivation and the evaluation of learning.
(Banks, S & Thompson, C, 1995).
Educational Psychology:
Educational psychology is that branch of psychology which deals with the application of
psychological findings in the field of education. In other words, it deals with the human behaviour in

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educational situations. It is the systematic study of the development of the individual in the educational
settings.
It is the scientific study of human behaviour by which it can be understood, predicated and directed
by education to achieve goals of life. Trow describes, “Educational psychology is the study of
psychological aspects of educational situations”.
Stephens says, “Educational psychology is the study of educational growth and development”.
Judd describes educational psychology as, “a scientific study of the life stages in the development of
an individual from the time he is born until he becomes an adult.”
According to Charles. E. Skinner, “Educational psychology deals with the behaviour of human
beings in educational situations”.
Nature of Educational Psychology:
The nature of educational psychology is as follows:
1. Applied science:
Educational psychology is an applied science. It applies psychological principles in the field of
education. It is applied to study the behaviour of the learner in educational situations.
2. Educational Psychology is a natural science. An educational psychologist conducts his
investigations, gathers his data and reaches his conclusions in the same manner as physicist or the
biologist.
3. Educational psychology is a social science. Like the sociologist, anthropologist, economist or
political scientist, the educational psychologist studies human beings and their sociability.
4. Educational psychology is a positive science. Normative science like Logic or Ethics deals with
facts as they ought to be. A positive science deals with facts as they are or as they operate. Educational
psychology studies the child’s behaviour as it is, not, as it ought to be. So, it is a positive science.
5. Growing science:
Educational psychology is a growing or developing science. New research findings add an insight to
study the child’s nature in the field of education. It is a continuously growing discipline day by day.
Educational psychology is not a normative science like logic or ethics because it deals with facts as
they are. It studies the child’s nature as they are and as they perform in different conditions.
Scope of Educational Psychology:
The scope of educational psychology is very wide. Its influence is clearly felt on education.
Educational psychology is deeply concerned with the determination of principles of mental

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development, general nature of learning, human growth and development, student’ behaviour,
individual differences, guidance and counselling, individual and social adjustment of man, method of
guidance, measurement, psychological theory of teaching, mental ability, individual differences and
solutions of problems of education.
The scope of educational psychology is ever-growing due to constantly researches in this field. The
following factors will indicate the scope of educational psychology:
1. The Learner. The subject-matter of educational psychology is knitted around the learner.
Therefore, the need of knowing the learner and the techniques of knowing him well. The topics include
– the innate abilities and capacities of the individuals, individual differences and their measurements,
the overt, covert, conscious as well as unconscious behaviour of the learner, the characteristics of his
growth and development and each stage beginning from childhood to adulthood.
2. The Learning Experiences. Educational Psychology helps in deciding what learning experiences
are desirable, at what stage of the growth and development of the learner, so that these experiences
can be acquired with a greater ease and satisfaction.
3. Learning process: After knowing the learner and deciding what learning experiences are to be
provided, Educational Psychology moves on to the laws, principles and theories of learning. Other
items in the learning process are remembering and forgetting, perceiving, concept formation, thinking
and reasoning, problem solving, transfer of learning, ways and means of effective learning etc.
4. Learning Situation or Environment. Here we deal with the environmental factors and learning
situations which come midway between the learner and the teacher. Topics like classroom climate
and group dynamics, techniques and aids that facilitate learning and evaluation, techniques and
practices, guidance and counselling etc. For the smooth functioning of the teaching-learning process.
5. The Teacher: The teacher is a potent force is any scheme of teaching and learning process. It
discusses the role of the teacher. It emphasizes the need of ‘knowing thyself’ for a teacher to play his
role properly in the process of education. His conflicts, motivation. Anxiety, adjustment, level of
aspiration etc. It throws light on the essential personality traits, interests, aptitudes, the characteristics
of effective teaching etc to inspire him for becoming a successful teacher.
Schools of thoughts in educational psychology
Every academic discipline, from literature and history to sociology and theology, has
competing theories or schools of thought: perspectives from which to study the subject.
Psychology, the study of the mind, has hundreds of theories and sub-theories, but the three
main schools of thought are often the foundation for those new to the world of psychology.
Structuralism
Structuralism is widely regarded as the first school of thought in psychology. This outlook focused on
breaking down mental processes into the most basic components. Major thinkers associated with
structuralism include Wilhelm Wundt and Edward Titchener. The focus of structuralism was on

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reducing mental processes down into their most basic elements. The structuralists used techniques
such as introspection to analyse the inner processes of the human mind.
Structuralism could be considered as the first formal theory in psychology that separated it from
biology and philosophy into its own discipline. The structural psychology was first described by
Titchener, a student of Wilhelm Wundt. Wundt created the first psychological laboratory, so
Titchener’s ideas were highly influenced by the work done there (Goodwin, 2008).
Structuralism or structural psychology was an approach that attempted to analyse the human mind by
establishing basic units within it. The focus was on these basic unit. They divided consciousness and
experiences into three units:
1. Physical sensation
2. Feelings
3. Images (memory, ideas, dreams)
The study of the mind was done through introspection (self-observation) to establish the link between
different inner experiences, like feelings or sensations. The participants had to focus on their feelings
and sensations to report them to the experimenters.
Perhaps the best known of the structuralists was Edward Bradford Titchener (1867–1927). Titchener
was a student of Wundt who came to the United States in the late 1800s and founded a laboratory at
Cornell University. In his research using introspection, Titchener and his students claimed to have
identified more than 40,000 sensations, including those relating to vision, hearing, and taste.
The Strengths and Criticisms of Structuralism
This approach was based on subjective measures only, not reliable method, Invalid technique,
Unable to cover all aspects of human behaviour, and Ignored motivation, individual
differences, which limited the accuracy of this approach.
Over the years his approach using introspection became more rigid and limited. Uninterested
in applied or clinical psychology, considering animal & child psychology impure and less
important. Introspections are always retrospections (based on memory not immediate
experience, with distortions). Introspections are remote from consciousness as it is
subjectively experienced. Dull and irrelevant.
However, these critiques do not mean that structuralism lacked significance. Structuralism is
important because it is the first major school of thought in psychology. The structuralist school
also influenced the development of experimental psychology.
Functionalism
Functionalism formed as a reaction to the theories of the structuralist school of thought and was
heavily influenced by the work of William James. It functioned on the mind's functions and adapta-
tions. Unlike some of the other well-known schools of thought in psychology, functionalism is not
associated with a single dominant theorist. Instead, there are some different functionalist thinkers
associated with this outlook including John Dewey, James Rowland Angell, and Harvey Carr.

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Author David Hothersall notes, however, that some historians even question whether functionalism
should be considered a formal school of psychology at all given its lack of a central leader or for-
malized set of ideas. Instead of focusing on the mental processes themselves, functionalist thinkers
were instead interested in the role that these processes play.
Functionalism, on the other hand, proposes that consciousness could not have a basic structure, so it
would not be useful to study it from this point of view. Rather, the idea behind functionalism is that
it would be effective to study the functions and roles of the human mind rather than its structure.
Functionalism was more focused on behaviour.
Functionalism was concerned not with the structure of consciousness but with how mental processes
function—that is, how humans and animals use mental processes in adapting to their environment.
Functionalism appeared as a reaction to structuralism, which was not accepted in America.
Psychologists like William James criticized structuralism and proposed alternatives. James suggested
that the mind and consciousness existed for a purpose, which should be the focus of the study. He also
suggested that psychology needed to be practical rather than purely theoretical as was proposed in the
structuralist approach. Functionalism also was focused on more objective aspects rather than
introspection. James believed in consciousness, however, he could not find a scientific way to study
it, so he chose to focus on behaviour, which could be studied objectively (Schultz & Schultz, 2011).
Behaviourism
Behaviourism became a dominant school of thought during the 1950s. It was based upon the work of
thinkers such as:
• John B. Watson
• Ivan Pavlov
• B. F. Skinner
Behaviourism suggests that all behaviour can be explained by environmental causes rather than by
internal forces. Behaviourism is focused on observable behaviour.
The behavioural school of psychology had a significant influence on the course of psychology, and
many of the ideas and techniques that emerged from this school of thought are still widely used today.
Behavioural training, token economies, aversion therapy, and other techniques are frequently used in
psychotherapy and behaviour modification programs.
Behaviourism is a school of psychology that is based on the premise that it is not possible to
objectively study the mind, and therefore that psychologists should limit their attention to the study
of behaviour itself. Behaviourists believe that the human mind is a “black box” into which stimuli
are sent and from which responses are received. They argue that there is no point in trying to determine
what happens in the box because we can successfully predict behaviour without knowing what
happens inside the mind. Furthermore, behaviourists believe that it is possible to develop laws of
learning that can explain all behaviours.
The first behaviourist was the American psychologist John B. Watson (1878–1958). Watson was
influenced in large part by the work of the Russian physiologist Ivan Pavlov (1849–1936), who had
discovered that dogs would salivate at the sound of a tone that had previously been associated with

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the presentation of food. Watson and the other behaviourists began to use these ideas to explain how
events that people, and other organisms experienced in their environment (stimuli) could produce
specific behaviours (responses).
The most famous behaviourist was B. F. Skinner (1904–1990), who expanded the principles of be-
haviourism and brought them to the attention of the public at large. Skinner used the ideas of stimulus
and response, along with the application of rewards or reinforcements, to train pigeons and other
animals. And he used the general principles of behaviourism to develop theories about how best to
teach children and how to create societies that were peaceful and productive. Skinner even developed
a method for studying thoughts and feelings using the behaviourist approach (Skinner, 1972).
Theories of learning including classical conditioning and operant conditioning were the focus of a
great deal of research.
Operant conditioning
Operant conditioning was developed by B.F. Skinner in 1937 and deals with the modification of
"voluntary behaviour" or operant behaviour,. Operant is a set of stimuli that produces meaningful
consequences to an animal. It can further divided into Reinforcement (stimulus that increase the
probability of performing behaviours) and punishment (stimulus that decrease the probability of
performing behaviours). The core tools of operant conditioning are either positive (delivered
following a response), or negative (withdrawn following a response).
Skinner identified three types of responses, or operant, that can follow behaviour.
• Neutral operants: responses from the environment that neither increase nor decrease the proba-
bility of a behaviour being repeated.
• Reinforcers: Responses from the environment that increase the probability of a behaviour being
repeated. Reinforcers can be either positive or negative.
• Punishers: Responses from the environment that decrease the likelihood of a behaviour being
repeated. Punishment weakens behaviour.
The following descriptions explained the concepts of four common types of operant conditioning in
details:
• Positive reinforcement: Providing a stimulus that an individual desire to reinforce desired behav-
iours. For example, a child loves playing video games. His mother reinforced his tendency to
provide a helping hand to other family members by providing more time for him to play video
games.
• Negative reinforcement: Removing a stimulus that an individual does not desire to reinforce
desired behaviours. For example, a child hates being nagged to clean his room. His mother rein-
forces his room cleaning by removing the undesired stimulus of nagging after he has cleaned.
In negative reinforcement, a response or behaviour is strengthened by stopping, removing, or
avoiding a negative outcome or aversive stimulus
• Positive punishment: Providing a stimulus that an individual does not desire to decrease unde-
sired behaviours. For example, a child hates to do chores. His parents will try to reduce the unde-
sired behaviour of failing a test by applying the undesired stimuli of more chores around the house.

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• Negative punishment: Removing a stimulus that an individual desire in order to decrease unde-
sired behaviours. For example, a child loves playing video games. His parents will try to reduce
the undesired behaviour of failing an exam by removing the desired stimulus of video games.
Negative Reinforcement vs. Punishment
One mistake that people often make is confusing negative reinforcement with punishment.
Remember, however, that negative reinforcement involves the removal of a negative condition to
strengthen a behaviour. Punishment, on the other hand, involves either presenting or taking away a
stimulus to weaken a behaviour.
Classical conditioning
classical conditioning (or Pavlovian conditioning or respondent conditioning) is also an important
behaviour-analytic process that need not refer to mental or other internal processes. Pavlov's
experiments with dogs provide the most familiar example of the classical conditioning procedure.
• -At the beginning, the dog was provided a meat (unconditioned stimulus, UCS, naturally elicit a
response that is not controlled) to eat, resulting in increased salivation (unconditioned response, UCR,
which means that a response is naturally caused by UCS).
• -Afterwards, a bell ring was presented together with food to the dog. Although bell ring was a neutral
stimulus (NS, meaning that the stimulus did not had any effect), dog would start salivating when only

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hearing a bell ring after several pairings. Eventually, the neutral stimulus (bell ring) became
conditioned.
Therefore, salvation was elicited as a conditioned response (the response same as the unconditioned
response), pairing up with meat—the conditioned stimulus) Although Pavlov proposed some tentative
physiological processes that might be involved in classical conditioning, these have not been
confirmed. The idea of classical conditioning helped behaviourist John Watson discover the key
mechanism behind how humans acquire the behaviours that they do, which was to find a natural reflex
that produces the response being considered.
Watson's "Behaviourist Manifesto" has three aspects that deserve special recognition: one is that
psychology should be purely objective, with any interpretation of conscious experience being
removed, thus leading to psychology as the "science of behaviour"; the second one is that the goals of
psychology should be to predict and control behaviour (as opposed to describe and explain conscious
mental states); the third one is that there is no notable distinction between human and non-human
behaviour. Following Darwin's theory of evolution, this would simply mean that human behaviour is
just a more complex version in respect to behaviour displayed by other species.

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GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT
General-Nature of Growth and Development:
Human beings keep changing. During their lives, they change in size, appearance and psychological
makeup. The way they change differs from individual to individual. But the fundamental underlying
patterns of growth and development remain more or less the same and take place in an orderly way.
Each individual, with his unique heredity and the way he is nurtured, determines the way he traverses
the broad highway of his life at his rate of progress. He will attain the size shape, capacities and
developmental status in a way which is peculiar to him at each stage of life. We often use ‘growth’
and ‘development’ interchangeably, as synonymous terms. In the strictest sense of the word, ‘growth’
is different from ‘development’.
GROWTH
In this strict sense ‘growth’ means an increase in size. When we say that a body or any of its parts has
“grown”, it means that it has become larger and heavier. Thus, increase in size height, length and
weight which can be measured, contributes ‘growth’. Hurlock has defined Growth as “change in size,
in proportion, disappearance of old features and acquisition of new ones”.
Development
Development refers to the qualitative changes in the organism as whole. Development is a continuous
process through which physical, emotional and intellectual changes occur. It is a more wide and
comprehensive term than growth. It is also possible without growth. In the strict sense of the word,
implies change in shape, form or structure resulting in improved working or functioning. Improved
functioning implies certain qualitative changes leading to maturity. For example, ‘arms’ do not grow
larger, but they also develop because they improve in their functions. Increase in size and structure of
arms enables the human individual to use them for more complex functions which were not possible
earlier.
According to Crow and Crow (1965) development is concerned with growth as well as those changes
in behaviour which results from environmental situation.”

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DIFFERENCE BETWEEN GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT:
Growth Development
Growth refers to physiological changes. Development refers to overall changes in the
individual. It involves changes in an orderly and
coherent type towards the goal of maturity.
Changes in the quantitative respect is termed as
growth
Development changes in the quality along with
quantitative aspect.
Growth does not continue throughout life. Development continues throughout life.
Growth stops after maturation Development is progressive.
Growth occurs due to the multiplication of
cells.
Development occurs due to both maturation and
interaction with the environment.
Growth is cellular Development is organizational.
Growth is one of the parts of the developmental
process.
Development is a wider and comprehensive term.
Growth may be referred to describe the changes
in particular aspects of the body and behaviour
of the organism
Development describes the changes in the
organism as a whole.
The changes produced by growth are subjects
of measurements. They may be quantified and
observable in nature.
Development brings qualitative changes which
are difficult to measure directly. They are assessed
through keen observation of behaviour in different
situations.
Growth may or may not bring development. Development is possible without growth.
STAGES OF DEVELOPMENT
A. Infancy: (from birth to 2 years)
The child at infancy stage reacts to external stimuli like light, sound and temperature. Perceptual skills
develop during the first year. In this age the child can imitate, discriminate and recognize to some
extent. The child is mostly engaged in manipulation of objects. A Swiss psychologist Jean Piaget
called this stage as sensory-motor period which covers first 18 months of life.
B. Early Childhood Stage: (from 3 to 6 years)
Early childhood stage covers from 2/3 years to 6/7 years. Rate of growth during this stage becomes
slow in comparison to infancy stage. At the age of six years a child becomes 43 to 45 inches tall.
There is an average increase to 3 to 5 pounds of weight annually
C. Later Childhood Stage: (from 7 to 11 years)
During later childhood period (6 years to 12 years of age) physical growth is initially slow. Arms and
legs grow faster than the trunk, and the child appears tall and thin. He loses his milk teeth and

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permanent teeth begin to appear. The sense organ, muscles and brain are more or less mature. The
overall appearance of the child changes during this stage.
D. Early Adulthood stage: (from 20 to 29 years)
Adolescence is a Latin word, which derived from the word “adolescere” meaning to grow up, or grow
to maturity. This period is from 10 to 15 years of age, it is a period of life between the age of child
hood and adulthood. The adolescent stage is another period of accelerated growth. Individual can
grow up to four inches and increase in weight up to ten pounds per year. At the end of this stage,
individuals may gain seven to nine inches in height and forty to forty-five pounds in weight.
E. Adolescence Stage:
The period of transition from childhood to adulthood is called adolescence. Adolescence is very
crucial stage of development. In Indian conditions the period of adolescence may vary from 12-13
years to 18-21 years.
CHARACTERISTICS OR PRINCIPLES OF GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT:
The process of development has been studied experimentally and otherwise. The studies and
researches have highlighted certain significant facts or principles underlying this process.
(1) Development follows a pattern:
Development follows a pattern peculiar of the species development occurs in orderly manner and
follows a certain sequence. For example, the human body cuts his molars before his incisors, can stand
before he walks and can draw, a circle before he can draw a square. In physical development one can
see the cephalocaudal sequence in the prenatal life of the human child.
This means that control of the body as well as improvements in the structure itself develops first in
the head and progresses later to parts further from the bread. The cephalocaudal sequence may be
illustrated by the development of motor functions.
(2) Development proceeds from general to specific responses:
It moves from a generalised to localised behaviour. This can be observed in the behaviour of infants
and young children. This new-born infant moves his whole body at one time instead of moving only
one part of it. The baby waves his arms in general and makes random movements before he is capable
of such a specific response as reaching out for a specific object.
(3) Development is a continuous process:
Development does not occur in spurts. Although, it is suggested that there are definite developmental
stages such as ‘gang age’ or ‘adolescence’, yet it is a fact that growth continues from the moments of

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conception until the individuals reaches maturity. It takes place at a slow regular pace rather than by
‘leaps and bounds. Development of both physical and mental traits continues gradually until these
traits reach their maximum growth.
(4) Different aspects of growth develop at different rates:
Neither all parts of the body grow at the same rate, nor do all aspects of mental growth proceed equally.
They reach maturity at different times. For example, the brain attains its mature size around the age
of six to eight years. It gains much in organisation after that. The feet, hands and nose reach their
maximum devolvement early in adolescence.
(5) Most traits are correlated in development:
Generally, it is seen that the child whose intellectual development is above average is; o in health size,
sociability and special aptitudes. Mental defectives tend to be smaller in stature than the normal child.
Idiots and imbeciles are often the smallest of the feebleminded group. There is a correlation between
high intelligence and sexual maturity.
(6) Growth is complex. All of its aspects are closely inter-related:
“It is impossible to understand the physical child without understanding him at the same time as a
child who thinks and has feeling.” His mental development is intimately related to his physical growth
and its needs. Again, there is a close relationship between his total adjustment to school and his
emotions, his physical health and his intellectual adequacy. An emotional disturbance may contribute
to difficulties in eating or sleeping. A physical defect may be responsible for the development certain
attitudes and social adjustments.
(7) Growth is a product of the interaction both heredity and environment:
Neither heredity alone, nor the mere environment is the potent factor in the development of an
individual. But it is not possible to indicate exactly in what proportion heredity and environment
contribute to the development of an individual.
(8) Principle of spiral versus linear arrangement:
The child doesn’t proceed straight on the path of development with a constant or steady pace. Actually,
he makes advancement, during a particular period but takes rest in the next following period to

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consolidate his development. In advancing further, therefore, he turns back and then makes forward
again like a spiral.
(9) Cephalocaudal principle:
Development proceeds from the head downwards. This is called the cephalocaudal principle.
According to this principle, development occurs from head to tail. The child gains control of the head
first, then the arms and then the legs.
(10) Principle of proximodistal:
Development proceeds from the centre of the body outward. This is the principle of proximodistal
development that describes the direction of development (from nearer to far apart). It means that the
spinal cord develops before outer parts of the body. The child’s arms develop before the hands and
the hands and feet develop before the fingers and toes.
(11) Development depends on maturation and learning:
Maturation refers to the sequential characteristic of biological growth and development. The
biological changes occur in sequential order and give children new abilities. Changes in the brain and
nervous system account largely for maturation. These changes in the brain and nervous system
account largely for maturation. The child’s environment and the learning that occurs as a result of the
child’s experiences largely determine whether the child will reach optimal development. An enriched
environment and varied experiences help the child to develop his/her potential.
NATURE VERSUS NURTURE
The Nature and nurture are termed as heredity and environment. Two views are prevailing among the
psychologist with regard to the growth and development of an individual namely heredity and envi-
ronment. Some people argue that a person's heredity decides his growth and development, and others
argue that it is environment which decides the individual's pattern of growth and development.
Meaning of Heredity (Nature)
Heredity is the process by which characteristics of an individual are basically determined by genes
received from the parents.

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Dougal and Holland define, “One's heredity consists of all the structures, physical characteristics,
functions or capacities derived from parents, other ancestry of species.” Woodworth defines, “Hered-
ity covers all the factors that are present in the individual when he begins life not at birth, but at the
time of conception about nine months before birth.”
Meaning of environment (Nurture)
Environment is the process by which characteristics of an individual are determined by his/her sur-
roundings and circumstances. The forces of environment begin to play their part and influence the
growth and development of the individual, right from the time of fertilization of the ovum by sperm.
Therefore, from the environmental point view, not only what happens after birth is important but also
what goes on inside the womb of the mother after conception has equal significance. Boring, Langfield
and Weld define,” “the environment is everything that affects the individual except his genes.”
FACTORS AFFECTING HUMAN DEVELOPMENT
Human development is the process in which the changes occur in all the aspects of an organism from
conception to death. It is a natural process for each and every child to grow. But it is observed that all
children do not grow in the similar fashion. Some children physical growth occurs earlier than others,
some Individual differences in the development process. Happiness varies at different periods of
development are physically stronger than others, some are taller than others and so on. So far as mental
development is concerned, some children have better cognitive ability, memory, reasoning, thinking
ability etc. than others. All children also do not have same type of intelligence. Some have more
musical talents, others have more intrapersonal intelligence, others also have more linguistic abilities
etc. So, children differ from each other because several factors influence on their development. Some
of the important factors have been enumerated below:
1) Hereditary Factors:-
Heredity exerts an influence on human development. The child carries genetic endowments from
his/her parents. It is genetically transmitted characteristics from one generation to the next. The
physical characteristics like height, weight, eye colour etc. and psychological characteristics such as
intelligence, personality, creativity and so on are innately determined and hereditary. The genetic code
provides the base on which brain and body grow and manifest in observable appearance and
behaviour.

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2) Environmental Factors:-
Another important factor of human development is the environment where an individual life. The
child lives and grows in his environment. Environment consists of a wide range of stimuli and it
provides the necessary input and experiential base for development of the child. Enrichment or
impoverishment of the environment would produce differences in his abilities. For example, a child
may have inherited music talent from his parents through transmission of genes, but he may not excel
in music field if he does not get the proper environment and support to develop his innate ability.
3) Home Environment:-
Home environment exerts tremendous influence on child‟s understanding of the external world. It
builds self-concept and prepares him to face the external world. The child begins to acquire knowledge
through interaction with parents and other family members. During his early years of development,
the behaviours of the child are modulated by the home environment. The environment of the family
can be supportive or stressful for the child. If it is supportive, warm and harmonious environment, the
child develops normally. In unsupportive and stressful home environment, broken families or
uncaring parents in the family, children may develop as maladjusted persons.
4) Cultural Factors:-
Culture refers to a system of beliefs, attitudes and values that are transmitted from one generation to
the next. It is a product of past human behavior and is also a shaper of future aspirations. The
development of the child is influenced by family as well as by the society. The child learns the habits,
beliefs, attitude, skills and standards of judgment through the socialization processes. The
socialization processes of the child take place according to the culture, customs and traditions of the
society. For example, greeting someone is a familiar experience but behavioral experiences are
different in different cultures. In Indian culture, people greet others by saying namaskar, folding hands
or lying down near the feet but in Western culture, people greet by handshake or kissing or saying
hello etc.
5) Socio-Economic Status (SES):-
Socioeconomic Status plays a pivotal role in human development. The index of socioeconomic status
is determined by parental education, occupation and income. The children of low socioeconomic

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status may develop as mal-nourished, suffer from lack of knowledge in many aspects and their normal
development may get hampered. The parenting in high socioeconomic status families would be
different from low socio-economic status families. Children of the high socioeconomic groups of the
society get better social opportunities, are nurtured with better nutrition, good medical treatment and
are exposed to more intellectual stimulation than low socioeconomic group.
6) Education and Training:-
Each child is equipped with certain abilities which need to be nurtured through proper education and
training. Therefore, the first and foremost step is to identify and recognize the ability of the child and
the next step is to provide adequate opportunities to develop the same. If proper identification of the
ability is not possible and adequate facilities are not available to the child, then his innate ability may
not be developed. Thus, adequate education and training have influence on human development.
7) Gender
The gender of the child is another major factor affecting the physical growth and development of a
child. Boys and girls grow in different ways, especially nearing puberty. Boys tend to be taller and
physically stronger than girls. However, girls tend to mature faster during adolescence, while boys
mature over a longer period of time. The physical structure of their bodies also has differences which
make boys more athletic and suited for activities that require physical rigour. Their temperaments also
vary, making them show interest in different things.
ERIKSON THEORY OF PSYCHOSOCIAL DEVELOPMENT
Erik Erikson (1902 – 1994) was a German born psychoanalyst, a pioneer in a life span per-
spective. Erikson viewed that ego development occurs through one’s life time. Erikson’s
(1950, 1982) theory of psychosocial development covers eight stages across the life span. Ac-
cording to Erikson each stage involves a “crisis” in personality – that is important at that time
and will remain an issue to some degree throughout the rest of life. In each stage there is the
balancing of a positive tendency and a corresponding negative one.
Erik Erikson’s theory of psychosocial development is one of the best-known theories of personality
in psychology. Much like Sigmund Freud, Erikson believed that personality develops in a series of

17
stages. Unlike Freud’s theory of psychosexual stages, Erikson’s theory describes the impact of social
experience across the whole lifespan.
Psychosocial
Crisis
Basic
Virtue
Age Outcomes
Stage 1
Trust vs. Mis-
trust
Hope 0 - 2 Children develop a sense of trust when caregivers pro-
vide reliability, care, and affection. A lack of this will
lead to mistrust.
Stage 2
Autonomy vs.
Shame
Will 2 - 3 Children need to develop a sense of personal control
over physical skills and a sense of independence. Suc-
cess leads to feelings of autonomy, failure results in
feelings of shame and doubt.
Stage 3
Initiative vs.
Guilt
Purpose 3 - 5 Children need to begin asserting control and power
over the environment. Success in this stage leads to a
sense of purpose. Children who try to exert too much
power experience disapproval, resulting in a sense of
guilt.
Stage4
Industry vs. In-
feriority
Competency 5 - 12 Children need to cope with new social and academic
demands. Success leads to a sense of competence,
while failure results in feelings of inferiority.
Stage 5
Identity vs.
Role Confusion
Fidelity 12 - 18 Teens needs to develop a sense of self and personal
identity. Success leads to an ability to stay true to
yourself, while failure leads to role confusion and a
weak sense of self.
Stage 6
Intimacy vs.
Isolation
Love 18 - 40 Young adults need to form intimate, loving relation-
ships with other people. Success leads to strong rela-
tionships, while failure results in loneliness and isola-
tion.
Stage 7
Generativity vs.
Stagnation
Care 40 - 65 Adults need to create or nurture things that will outlast
them, often by having children or creating a positive
change that benefits other people. Success leads to
feelings of usefulness and accomplishment, while fail-
ure results in shallow involvement in the world.
Stage 8
Ego Integrity
vs. Despair
Wisdom 65+ Older adults need to look back on life and feel a sense
of fulfilment. Success at this stage leads to feelings of
wisdom, while failure results in regret, bitterness, and
despair.

18
Stage 1 - Trust vs. Mistrust
• The first stage of Erikson’s theory of psychosocial development occurs between birth and one year
of age and is the most fundamental stage in life.
• Because an infant is utterly dependent, the development of trust is based on the dependability and
quality of the child’s caregivers.
• If a child successfully develops trust, he or she will feel safe and secure in the world. Caregivers
who are inconsistent, emotionally unavailable, or rejecting contribute to feelings of mistrust in the
children they care for. Failure to develop trust will result in fear and a belief that the world is incon-
sistent and unpredictable.
Stage 2 - Autonomy vs. Shame and Doubt
• The second stage of Erikson's theory of psychosocial development takes place during early child-
hood and is focused on children developing a greater sense of personal control.
• Like Freud, Erikson believed that toilet training was a vital part of this process. However, Erikson's
reasoning was quite different then that of Freud's. Erikson believe that learning to control one’s body
functions leads to a feeling of control and a sense of independence.
• Other important events include gaining more control over food choices, toy preferences, and cloth-
ing selection.
• Children who successfully complete this stage feel secure and confident, while those who do not are
left with a sense of inadequacy and self-doubt.
Stage 3 - Initiative vs. Guilt
• During the preschool years, children begin to assert their power and control over the world through
directing play and other social interaction.
• Children who are successful at this stage feel capable and able to lead others. Those who fail to
acquire these skills are left with a sense of guilt, self-doubt and lack of initiative.
Stage 4 - Industry vs. Inferiority
• This stage covers the early school years from approximately age 5 to 11.
• Through social interactions, children begin to develop a sense of pride in their accomplishments and
abilities.

19
• Children who are encouraged and commended by parents and teachers develop a feeling of compe-
tence and belief in their skills. Those who receive little or no encouragement from parents, teachers,
or peers will doubt their ability to be successful.
Stage 5 - Identity vs. Confusion
• During adolescence, children are exploring their independence and developing a sense of self.
• Those who receive proper encouragement and reinforcement through personal exploration will
emerge from this stage with a strong sense of self and a feeling of independence and control. Those
who remain unsure of their beliefs and desires will insecure and confused about themselves and the
future.
Stage 6 - Intimacy vs. Isolation
• This stage covers the period of early adulthood when people are exploring personal relationships.
• Erikson believed it was vital that people develop close, committed relationships with other people.
Those who are successful at this step will develop relationships that are committed and secure.
• Remember that each step builds on skills learned in previous steps. Erikson believed that a strong
sense of personal identity was important to developing intimate relationships. Studies have demon-
strated that those with a poor sense of self tend to have less committed relationships and are more
likely to suffer emotional isolation, loneliness, and depression.
Stage 7 - Generativity vs. Stagnation
• During adulthood, we continue to build our lives, focusing on our career and family.
• Those who are successful during this phase will feel that they are contributing to the world by being
active in their home and community. Those who fail to attain this skill will feel unproductive and
uninvolved in the world.
Stage 8 - Integrity vs. Despair
• This phase occurs during old age and is focused on reflecting on life.
• Those who are unsuccessful during this phase will feel that their life has been wasted and will ex-
perience many regrets. The individual will be left with feelings of bitterness and despair.
• Those who feel proud of their accomplishments will feel a sense of integrity. Successfully complet-
ing this phase means looking back with few regrets and a general feeling of satisfaction. These indi-
viduals will attain wisdom, even when confronting death

20
COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT: THE THEORY OF JEAN PIAGET
Cognition refers to thinking and memory processes, and cognitive development refers to long-term
changes in these processes. One of the most widely known perspectives about cognitive development
is the cognitive stage theory of a Swiss psychologist named Jean Piaget. Piaget created and studied an
account of how children and youth gradually become able to think logically and scientifically.
Assimilation and Accommodation
Jean Piaget (1952; see also Wadsworth, 2004) viewed intellectual growth as a process
of adaptation (adjustment) to the world. This happens through:
Assimilation: – Which is using an existing schema to deal with a new object or situation.
Accommodation: – This happens when the existing schema (knowledge) does not work, and needs
to be changed to deal with a new object or situation.
Equilibration: -- Equilibration is the force which drives the learning process as we do not like to be
frustrated and will seek to restore balance by mastering the new challenge (accommodation). Once
the new information is acquired the process of assimilation with the new schema will continue until
the next time we need to make an adjustment to it.

21
1- Sensor i-Motor Stage.
This stage begins at birth and lasts till the child is about 2 years old. It is called Sensori-Motor Stage,
because children’s thinking involves seeing, hearing, moving, touching, testing and so on. This stage
marks a transitional stage for a person from a biological to a psychological being. In the first few
weeks of life the baby’s behaviour consists simply of reflex responses, such as sucking, stepping and
grasping. Later the reflex disappears, and the baby chooses what and when to grasp. During this period
the infants attain the concept of object permeance. This refers to the understanding that objects and
events continue to exist even when they cannot directly be seen, heard or touched. Till this kind of
understanding is achieved, an object that is out of sight remains out of mind and therefore, becomes
non-existent. A second major accomplishment in the Sensori-Motor period is learning to reverse
actions. E.g., we give a toy to a child that has ten detachable parts. We detach all parts. Through trial
and error, the child gradually learns to attach all the parts of the toy.
2- Pre-Operational Stage (2 to 7 Years).
This stage is called Pre-Operational because the children have not yet mastered the ability to perform
mental operations. Children’s thinking during this stage is governed by what is seen rather than by
logical principles. Following are the accomplishments of Pre-Operational Stage:
a. Semantic function. During this stage the child develops the ability to think using symbols and
signs. Symbols represent something or someone else; for example, a doll may symbolize a baby, child
or an adult.
b. Egocentrism. This stage is characterized by egocentrism. Children believe that their way of think-
ing is the only way to think.
c. Decentering. A pre-operational child has difficulty in seeing more than one dimension or aspects
of situation. It is called decentering.
d. Animism. Children tend to refer to inanimate objects as if they have life-like qualities and are
capable of actions.
e. Seriation. They lack the ability of classification or grouping objects into categories.
f. Conservation. It refers to the understanding that certain properties of an object remain the same
despite a change in their appearance.

22
3- Concrete Operational Stage (7 to 11 years).
At this stage a child is concerned with the integration of stability of his cognitive systems. He learns
to add, subtract, multiply and divide. He is in a position to classify concrete objects. In short, children
develop the abilities of rational thinking, but their thinking is tied to concrete objects.
4- Formal Operational Stage (11 & above).
This type is characterised by the emergence of logical thinking and reasoning. Other important cog-
nitive attainments during this period are: the ability to think about the hypothetical possibilities
and to solve problems through logical deductions and in a systematic manner.
Educational Implications.
• Piaget’s concept of development process of understanding working of the child’s mind can be
helpful to those who are involved in teaching and other educational practices. He says that chil-
dren pass through number of stages before the age of 14 years and a lot of care should be taken in
child’s training and development.
• Most of the teachers are now in agreement with him that it is waste of time to take those things to
children which cannot be experienced through sense organs. When the children form many direct
experiences then only, they are in a position to understand the abstract ideas and concept. Piaget
does not like to look at education, therefore, the teacher must always make an effort to orient
education around the child.
• The most important function of school is to provide good stimulating environment within the
school for the proper development of their mental abilities. The school should provide good li-
brary opportunities for free discussions and community services. The needs of adolescents should
be given proper place on the school curriculum.
Bibliography:
• Authors: Charles Stangor and Jennifer Walinga (2014). Introduction to Psychology – 1st Canadian
Edition, BCcampus
• S. K. MANGAL (2004). Advanced Educational Psychology, Second Edition
• Dr. Kelvin Seifert (2010) Educational Psychology Second Edition, Orange Grove Texts Plus; Second
edition
• AR. Saravanakumar (2016). Educational Psychology, Sara Book Publication, Ahmedabad

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