EuHEA_COVID_2.pptx

1. Psychological Well-Being during the COVID-19 Lockdown: Labour Market and Gender Implications Israel Escudero-Castillo (uo179414@uniovi.es) Francisco Javier Mato Díaz (jmato@uniovi.es) Ana Rodriguez-Alvarez (ana@uniovi.es) EuHEA Seminar Series 2021 10 June 2021

2. OUTLINE 1-Motivation 2-Psychological well-being and COVID-19 3-Gender differences in employment, childcare and PWB 4-Objectives and hypotheses 5-Data and methodology 5-Variables included in the analysis 6-Results 7-Conclusions

3. 1. Motivation • Relationship between employment status and mental health (Paul and Moser, 2009). • Increase in mental health problems since the beginning of the pandemic (Cao et al., 2020; González-Sanguino et al., 2020). • Changes in the employment situation due to the pandemic (teleworking, increase in layoffs, furloughs…). • 2.7 billion workers were affected by the measures implemented to control the health crisis (ILO, 2020).

4. 2. Psychological well-being and COVID-19 • COVID-19 pandemic is related to a worse PWB (Depressive symptom) (García-Álvarez et al., 2020) • Permanent fear of contagion (Cao et al., 2020). • Restriction in freedom of movements (Brooks et al., 2020). • Overexposure to news related to the pandemic (Yao, 2020). • Greater effect among women, young people and immigrant population (Proto and Quintana- Domeque, 2021).

5. COVID19 risk punctuation vs. 2006, 2011 and 2017 National Health Survey (NHS) from Spain 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 2006 NHS 2011 NHS 2017 NHS COVID19 Survey

6. • Loss of employment and a worse PWB (Yao and Wu, 2021; Escudero-Castillo, et al. 2021: Ikeda et al., 2021). • Contradictory effects of teleworking (Baert et al., 2020). Importance of the organization (Oaskman, 2020). • The protective effect of furlough is related to the existence of a salary (Possel et al., 2021).

7. 3. Gender differences in employment, childcare and PWB • Great Recession (2008) vs. COVID-19 crisis (Hoynes et al., 2012; Alón et al., 2020). • Women and childcare needs: women have assumed almost 60% of the hours used in care tasks (Farre et al., 2020). • Time to care and time to work (Oreffice and Quintana- Domeque). Childcare and a higher probability to become unemployed (Adams-Prassl et al., 2020a). • Economic uncertainty and fear to lose job as potential determinant of stress. Traditional role of women (Barili et al., 2021). Importance of the gender regime (Strandh et al., 2013).

8. Care task and household production in Spain (2016) 0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 Childcare or education Care of sick people <75 years Care of sick people >75 years Cooking or doing housework Weekly hours Men Women

9. Differential effect of the pandemic on mental health Author Country Obtaining data Conclusion Adams-Prassl et al., 2020b USA Online survey Pandemic control measures reduced mental health by 0.085 standard deviations. This effect is strengthened by the worse results of women. Barili et al., 2021 Italy Online survey (women only) Concerns arising from economic uncertainty account for most of the variation in measures of mental well-being. Beland et al., 2020 Canada Canadian Perspective Survey Series The inability to meet financial obligations and social isolation would be related to increased concern in women about gender violence and family stress. Broche-Pérez et al., 2020 Cuba Online survey Being a woman was a predictor of medium and high levels of fear of COVID-19. Etheridge and Spantig, 2020 UK Online survey Decreased mental well-being since the start of the pandemic. This decrease is doubled in the case of women. PWB and care-task overload. Liu et al., 2020 China Online survey Greater symptoms of post-traumatic stress in women. Moghanibashi- Mansourieh, 2020 Iran Online survey Higher levels of anxiety among women, young people and people more exposed to information about the pandemic. Oreffice and Quintana- Domeque, 2020 UK Online survey The mental health of women is worse than that of men in all the indicators used, they presented a greater concern about contracting the virus and a greater burden of unpaid domestic work. Pieh et al., 2020 Austria Online survey Anxiety and depression increased 21% and 19% respectively compared to previous data. The increase was especially marked among young people, women, people without work and with low incomes. Proto and Quintana- Domeque, 2021 UK Uk Houshold Longitudinal Study (UKHLS) Mental health deterioration for all survey participants, although greater for women and ethnic minorities. Rossi et al., 2020 Italy Online survey Increased post-traumatic stress, depression, anxiety, and insomnia. Young people and women in the population are the groups most affected. Escudero-Castillo et al., 2021 Spain Online survey Women have a greater probability to suffer a psychological deterioration. This effect is especially accused between telecommute

12. Differential effect of the pandemic on paid and unpaid work Author Country Obtaining data Conclusion Adams-Prassl et al., 2020a UK, USA and Germany Online survey Greater labor impact among women and workers with a lower level of training. Alon et al., 2020 USA Current Population Survey and Annual Social and Economic Supplements Greater damage on the employment situation of women due to their fewer telework options and a lower presence in essential sectors. Amano-Patiño et al., 2020 Meta- analysis Meta-analysis The unequal distribution of housework could be explaining a minor presence of women in the investigation related to COVID-19. Andrew et al., 2020 UK Online survey Mothers spend less time on paid work and more time on housework and care than fathers. Collins et al., 2020 USA US Current Population Survey The gender gap in working hours increased by 20-50% or during the pandemic. Dang and Nguyen, 2020 China, Italy, Japan, South Korea, UK and USA Online survey The probability of losing a job permanently is 24% among women than among men, and that their income falls, 50%. Farré et al., 2020 Spain Online survey Women are more likely to lose their jobs than men. The increase in childcare hours and household chores fell mostly among women, although men slightly increased their participation. Hupkau and Petrongolo, 2020 UK UK Quartely Labor Force survey and the UKHLS Covid Supplement Men and women were affected equally with regard to job loss, but a better position for women in terms of reduced hours and wages. Reichelt et al., 2020 USA, Germany and Singapore Online survey Women are more likely than men to have transitioned to teleworking, reduced working hours and unemployment. Sevilla and Smith, 2020 UK Online survey Although the care gap appears to have narrowed, women continue to do most of the care work.

13. Differential effect of the pandemic on paid and unpaid work Author Country Obtaining data Conclusion Adams-Prassl et al., 2020a UK, USA and Germany Online survey Greater labor impact among women and workers with a lower level of training. Alon et al., 2020 USA Current Population Survey and Annual Social and Economic Supplements Greater damage on the employment situation of women due to their fewer telework options and a lower presence in essential sectors. Amano-Patiño et al., 2020 Meta- analysis Meta-analysis The unequal distribution of housework could be explaining a minor presence of women in the investigation related to COVID-19. Andrew et al., 2020 UK Online survey Mothers spend less time on paid work and more time on housework and care than fathers. Collins et al., 2020 USA US Current Population Survey The gender gap in working hours increased by 20-50% or during the pandemic. Dang and Nguyen, 2020 China, Italy, Japan, South Korea, UK and USA Online survey The probability of losing a job permanently is 24% among women than among men, and that their income falls, 50%. Farré et al., 2020 Spain Online survey Women are more likely to lose their jobs than men. The increase in childcare hours and household chores fell mostly among women, although men slightly increased their participation. Hupkau and Petrongolo, 2020 UK UK Quartely Labor Force survey and the UKHLS Covid Supplement Men and women were affected equally with regard to job loss, but a better position for women in terms of reduced hours and wages. Reichelt et al., 2020 USA, Germany and Singapore Online survey Women are more likely than men to have transitioned to teleworking, reduced working hours and unemployment. Sevilla and Smith, 2020 UK Online survey Although the care gap appears to have narrowed, women continue to do most of the care work.

14. • Study of the relationship between the employment situation and mental health. • Analysis of changes in psychological well-being (PWB) related to changes in employment situation. • Gender differences in work transition well-being and childcare impacts. • Evaluate the impact of care task in PWB during the pandemic. 4. Objectives and hypotheses

15. • H1: Unemployed and furloughed will experience a greater negative effect on their self-perceived well- being than those who are working. • H2: Teleworking situation will be related with a worse self-perceived well-being as compared to people who continue with usual presence-based jobs in the workplace. • H3: Women will experience a worse PWB as a result of the lockdown compared to men. • H4: Care task will be related to a worse PWB in women. Hypotheses

16. 5. Data and methodology • Quota sampling (sex, age and educational level). • Elevation coefficients. • Data collection between April 11 and May 7. • Total sample 1165 people. Over 18 years old and with a job during the last 18 years. • Ordered probit through survey methodology. • External shock in order to control the health selection bias.

17. Variables included in the analysis • Dependent variable: Mental health measured through the General Health Questionnaire-12. Ordinal variable. • Independent variables: employment status, sex, age, marital status, level of education, occupation, household characteristics and income.

18. 6. Results: risk scores depending on the employment situation 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 Unemployed before the lockdown Unemployed during the lockdown Furloughed On leave for other reasons Teleworking Working in the usual workplace Total Low risk Medium risk High risk

19. 6. Results: risk scores depending on the employment situation 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 Unemployed before the lockdown Unemployed during the lockdown Furloughed On leave for other reasons Teleworking Working in the usual workplace Total Low risk Medium risk High risk

20. Ordered probit. Total Sample Total Sample Coef. P>|t| Working situation (ref: working in the usual workplace) Unemployed (out of work before the lockdown) 0.355 0.163 Unemployed (out of work during the lockdown) 1.625 *** 0.000 Furloughed due to the lockdown 0.882 *** 0.000 On leave for other reasons 0.197 0.626 Teleworking 0.727 *** 0.003 Economic sector (ref: secondary) Primary -1.106 ** 0.014 Tertiary -0.320 0.155 Occupational group (ref: Directors and managers) Scientific and intellectual professionals -0.713 *** 0.007 Support professionals -0.630 ** 0.026 Accounting and administrative employees -0.675 ** 0.032 Catering, and vendors -0.288 0.347 Other lower-skilled workers -0.334 0.305 Years of work experience (log continuous var.) -0.309 ** 0.050 Income (ref: low level) Medium level -0.076 0.692 High level -0.050 0.834 Restrictions during confinement (ref: without restrictions) Medium level of restrictions -0.582 0.424 High level of restrictions -0.311 0.446 Confinement in Spain (ref: no) -0.072 0.824

23. Ordered probit. Total Sample Coef. P>|t| Gender (ref: men) Women 0.381 ** 0.014 Age -0.023 * 0.051 Education level (ref: low level) Medium level -0.058 0.753 High level -0.121 0.554 Disability (ref: no) 0.363 0.309 Marital status (ref: married) Separated or divorced -0.201 0.535 Single -1.124 *** 0.000 Widow/widower -0.641 0.429 Household members at risk of COVID-19 (ref: No) 0.156 0.308 Spain as country of birth (ref: no) 0.163 0.605 Number of people confined in the household (ref: person living alone) Two people -0.970 *** 0.001 Three people -0.929 ** 0.019 Four people -0.826 ** 0.026 Five or more -1.011 ** 0.045 Minors in the household (ref: no) -0.209 0.381 Dwelling with a patio (ref: no) -0.244 0.167 M2 per capita in dwelling (continuous variable) -0.010 * 0.090 Cut1 -4.577 *** 0.000 Cut2 -2.511 *** 0.003

24. Ordered probit. Total Sample Coef. P>|t| Gender (ref: men) Women 0.381 ** 0.014 Age -0.023 * 0.051 Education level (ref: low level) Medium level -0.058 0.753 High level -0.121 0.554 Disability (ref: no) 0.363 0.309 Marital status (ref: married) Separated or divorced -0.201 0.535 Single -1.124 *** 0.000 Widow/widower -0.641 0.429 Household members at risk of COVID-19 (ref: No) 0.156 0.308 Spain as country of birth (ref: no) 0.163 0.605 Number of people confined in the household (ref: person living alone) Two people -0.970 *** 0.001 Three people -0.929 ** 0.019 Four people -0.826 ** 0.026 Five or more -1.011 ** 0.045 Minors in the household (ref: no) -0.209 0.381 Dwelling with a patio (ref: no) -0.244 0.167 M2 per capita in dwelling (continuous variable) -0.010 * 0.090 Cut1 -4.577 *** 0.000 Cut2 -2.511 *** 0.003

25. Ordered probit by gender Men Women Coef. P>|t| Coef. P>|t| Working situation (ref: working in the usual workplace) Unemployed (out of work before the lockdown) 0.912 *** 0.004 -0.196 0.474 Unemployed (out of work during the lockdown) 1.058 *** 0.006 2.604 *** 0.000 Furloughed due to the lockdown 1.028 *** 0.000 0.452 * 0.071 On leave for other reasons 0.589 0.264 -0.324 0.521 Teleworking 0.389 * 0.088 0.679 *** 0.008 Economic sector (ref: secondary) Primary -1.458 *** 0.004 0.037 0.949 Tertiary -0.546 *** 0.010 0.202 0.643 Occupational group (ref: Directors and managers) Scientific and intellectual professionals -0.328 0.317 -0.970 ** 0.012 Support professionals -0.245 0.479 -1.119 ** 0.012 Accounting and administrative employees -0.101 0.765 -0.922 ** 0.039 Catering, and vendors -0.489 0.218 -0.304 0.475 Other lower-skilled workers -0.414 0.262 -0.971 0.109 Years of work experience (log continuous var.) 0.193 0.401 -0.499 ** 0.013 Income (ref: low level) Medium level -0.367 0.123 0.324 0.173 High level -0.414 0.165 0.364 0.159 Restrictions during confinement (ref: without restrictions) Medium level of restrictions 1.493 *** 0.001 -1.387 0.172 High level of restrictions 0.383 0.412 -1.192 * 0.095 Confinement in Spain (ref: no) -0.086 0.849 -0.114 0.749

29. Men Women Coef. P>|t| Coef. P>|t| Age -0.039 ** 0.024 -0.024 0.125 Education level (ref: low level) Medium level -0.125 0.559 -0.227 0.361 High level -0.024 0.927 -0.618 ** 0.023 Disability (ref: no) 0.596 0.383 0.212 0.393 Marital status (ref: married) Separated or divorced 0.396 0.223 -0.693 ** 0.039 Single -0.958 *** 0.000 -0.934 *** 0.000 Widow/widower -1.309 0.298 0.399 0.305 Household members at risk of COVID-19 (ref: No) -0.094 0.612 0.520 ** 0.012 Spain as country of birth (ref: no) -0.324 0.380 0.709 ** 0.047 Number of people confined in the household (ref: person living alone) Two people -0.462 0.180 -1.154 *** 0.001 Three people 0.420 0.325 -1.680 *** 0.001 Four people 0.275 0.559 -1.381 *** 0.002 Five or more 0.365 0.546 -2.023 *** 0.000 Minors in the household (ref: no) -0.746 *** 0.007 0.472 ** 0.027 Dwelling with a patio (ref: no) -0.316 0.152 -0.061 0.777 M2 per capita in dwelling (continuous variable) 0.001 0.936 -0.013 0.123 Cut1 -2.850 *** 0.002 -6.155 *** 0.000 Cut2 -0.768 0.404 -3.746 *** 0.003

32. Margins. Working situation 0.116** 0.147* 0.14*** 0.061 0.035 -0.018 0.636*** 0.062* -0.028 0.105 *** 0.038 0.334*** 0.13*** 0.019 0.098*** -0.1 0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 Unemployed (before) Unemployed (during) Furloughed On leave (other reasons) Teleworking Men Women Total

33. Margins. Living with a susceptible population cared for -0.013 **-0,1 **0.079 **0.07 0,026 -0.032 -0.04 -0.02 0 0.02 0.04 0.06 0.08 0.1 Members at risk of COVID-19 Minors in the household Men Women Total

34. 7. Conclusions (I) • Employment situation as a mediating variable in PWB during confinement. • Unemployed, furloughed and telecommuters vs. people who continue in their usual positions. • Importance of the characteristics of the home such as the number of people and m2 of the dwelling.

35. 7. Conclusions (II) • Gender differences in the impact of the different labour transition. • Women are more affected by care-related variables which, in turns may explain the unusual size of the impact of unemployment during the COVID.

36. • H1: Unemployed and furloughed will experience a greater negative effect on their self-perceived well-being than those who are working.  • H2: Teleworking situation will be related with a worse self- perceived well-being as compared to people who continue with usual presence-based jobs in the workplace.  • H3: Women will experience a worse PWB as a result of the lockdown compared to men.  • H4: Care task will be related to a worse PWB in women.  7. Conclusion (II)

37. Psychological Well-Being during the COVID-19 Lockdown: Labour Market and Gender Implications Israel Escudero-Castillo (uo179414@uniovi.es) Francisco Javier Mato Díaz (jmato@uniovi.es) Ana Rodriguez-Alvarez (ana@uniovi.es) EuHEA Seminar Series 2021 10 June 2021

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