1. Branches of pharmacology
1-Pharmacotherapeutic: ( clinical pharmacology)
It deals with relative effect of drugs in the human system for
various disorders
“The study of drug action in man”.
2- Pharmacodynamic:
“What the drug does to the body” (the relationship between
drug concentration in the body ).
3-Pharmacokinetics:
“what the body does to the drug.” ( the time course of drug
concentration in the body ).
pharmacology
2. Oral Transmucosal Administration
The sublingual or buccal route of
administration permits a rapid onset
of drug effect, because it bypasses
the liver and thus prevents the first-
pass hepatic effect on the initial
plasma concentration of drug.
3. First-order reaction
A reaction whose rate depends upon the
concentration of the reacting components.
This is an exponential process.
Zero-order reaction
A reaction whose rate is independent of the
concentration of reacting components
and is, therefore, constant. A first-order
reaction may become zero order when the
enzyme system is saturated.
4. EVENTS RESPONSIBLE FOR
VARIATIONS IN DRUG RESPONSES
BETWEEN INDIVIDUALSPharmacokinetics
Bioavailability
Renal function
Hepatic function
Cardiac function
Patient age
Pharmacodynamics
Enzyme activity
Genetic differences
Drug Interactions
5. Organs or body tissues
responsible for metabolism:
– Liver (mainly)
– Skeletal muscle
– Kidneys
– Lungs
– Plasma
– Intestinal mucosa
6. Excretion
Removal of drugs from body
• Kidneys (main organ) Whether the
drug is an original compound (parent
compound), an active or an inactive
metabolite----
• Liver
• Bowel
– Biliary excretion
– Enterohepatic recirculation
8. • The time it takes for one half of
the original amount of a drug in the
body to be removed
• A measure of the rate at which
drugs are removed from the body
• Most drugs are considered to be
effectively removed after about
five half-lives
10. Catecholamines
Substances that can produce
a sympathomimetic response
Endogenous:
• epinephrine, norepinephrine,dopamine
Synthetic:
• isoproterenol, dobutamine
11. Adrenergic Agents
Mechanism of Action
Direct-acting sympathomimetic:
Binds directly to the receptor and causes a
physiologic response
12. Adrenergic Agents
Mechanism of Action
Indirect-acting sympathomimetic:
Causes the release of catecholamine
from the storage sites (vesicles) in the
nerve endings
The catecholamine then binds to the
receptors and causes a physiologic
response
13. Adrenaline
Presentation & uses
Clear solution containing 0.1–1 mg/ml
IV bolus in asystole or anaphylaxis
IV infusion (0.01–0.5 μg/kg/min) in critically ill
with circulatory failure
Nebulized into upper airway → edematous
obstruction
1% ophthalmic solution → open-angle
glaucoma
In combination with LA (1 in 80 000–200 000)
14. Effects
Exerts effects via α- & β-adrenoceptors
Cardiovascular – vary according to dose
•Low-dose IVI → ↑CO, ↑myocardial oxygen
consumption & coronary artery dilatation
•High doses IVI or 1 mg bolus in cardiac arrest
→ ↑SVR
•If infiltrated into areas supplied by end arteries
→ vascular supply become compromised
•Extravasation → tissue necrosis
15. Effects
Respiratory
Bronchodilator
↑PVR
Metabolic
↑Basal metabolic rate
↑Plasma glucose by stimulating glycogenolysis (liver &
skeletal muscle), lipolysis & gluconeogenesis
Central nervous system
↑MAC and increases the peripheral pain threshold.
Renal
↓Renal blood flow
↑Bladder sphincter tone → difficulty micturition
16. Side effects
1-Fatal ventricular fibrillation
2-Cerebral hemorrhage
3- Urinary retention
4- Headache
5- Necrosis at injection side
6-Blurring of vision, photophobia
Volatile anesthetics (halothane) potentiate
dysrhythmic effects of epinephrine
19. ↓Renal blood flow & ↑myocardial
oxygen requirements limit its
usefulness to treatment of refractory
shock, which requires potent
vasoconstriction to maintain tissue
perfusion pressure.
Extravasation at site of administration
cause tissue necrosis
23. Phenylephrine
Direct α1-agonist
Peripheral vasoconstriction → ↑SVR &
↑ABP
Reflex bradycardia → ↓CO
IV boluses of 50–100 μg (0.5–1 μg/kg)
rapidly reverse reductions in BP caused by
peripheral vasodilation (spinal anesthesia)
A continuous infusion (100 μg/mL at rate
of (0.25–1 μg/kg/min) maintain ABP but at
expense of renal blood flow
24. Ephedrine
Non-catecholamine direct & indirect
acting
Cardiovascular effects are similar to
epinephrine ↑BP, ↑HR, ↑contractility &
↑CO
Bronchodilator
Stimulates CNS
Does not ↓uterine blood flow (preferred
vasopressor for obstetric???)
27. Dobutamine
Relatively selective β1 agonist
Its primary cardiovascular effect ↑CO
as a result of ↑myocardial
contractility.
Heart rate increases are less marked
than with other β agonists
Favorable effects on myocardial oxygen
balance make it a good choice for
patients with congestive heart failure &
28. Albuterol / Salbutamol /
Ventolin
Sympathomimetic agent
Stimulate β2 receptors of
bronchi leading to
bronchodilation
35. Clinical Considerations
↓PVR & ↓BP
HR & CO slightly depressed or
unchanged
↓BP without reflex tachycardia
because of its combination of α & β
effects
Peak effect occurs within 5 min after
IV dose
39. Clinical Considerations
Prevent tachycardia & hypertension
in response to intubation, surgical
stimulation & emergence
Control ventricular rate of AF or
flutter
Short duration of due to rapid
redistribution & hydrolysis by red
blood cell esterase
40. Side effects
* Reversed within minutes by
discontinuing its infusion
* Avoided in patients
_Sinus bradycardia
_Heart block greater than first
degree
_Cardiogenic shock
_Heart failure
48. Indications
1- Heart failure :ACE inhibitors are used in
all grades of heart failure, usually combined
with a beta-blocker
2- Hypertension :An ACE inhibitor may be
the most appropriate initial drug for
hypertension in younger patients
3- Prophylaxis of cardiovascular events
ACE inhibitors are used in the early and
long-term management of patients who
have had a myocardial infarction
52. Within the category of direct vasodilators,
1-sodium nitroprusside 2- nitroglycerin and
3-hydralazine are the three drugs most
commonly employed .
All three produce direct vasodilation.
Sodium nitroprusside produces arterial and
venous relaxation
Nitroglycerin has a greater effect on venous
than arterial relaxation
Hydralazine produces primarily arterial
relaxation.
53. The mechanism of action of all
three agents is believed to be
primarily an induced increase in
the concentration of vascular
nitric oxide
56. Its rapid onset (within seconds) and
its short duration of action (1-3 min)
make it unique among agents for the
rapid control of blood pressure.
Sodium nitroprusside reduces both
afterload and preload
58. Nitroglycerin is used in the
treatment of angina pectoris and
ischemia under anesthesia and also
can be used for lowering blood
pressure.
It has a rapid onset and short
duration so it is easily titratable.
61. Hydralazine causes direct relaxation
of arterial smooth muscle.
It can be administered intravenously
for the control of hypertension in
doses ranging from 2.5 to 20 mg.
Tachycardia frequently accompanies
the decrease in blood pressure
secondary to the preferential
reduction in afterload.
62. Hydralazine undergoes hepatic
metabolism with renal excretion.
Acetylation is partly responsible for
the metabolism of hydralazine.
Slow acetylators may be more prone
to a drug-induced lupus syndrome
that can result from high serum
concentrations of hydralazine during
chronic treatment.
64. Calcium channel blockers reduce the flow
of Ca2+ into the cell and cause a much
smaller release of Ca2+ from the
sarcoplasmic reticulum.
All calcium channel blockers produce
vasodilation and reduce arterial pressure,
which leads to a reduction in left
ventricular afterload.
65. Calcium antagonists are used to
reduce peripheral resistance in the
management of
1-
hypertension
2- to treat cerebral vasospasm after
SAH They also
slow conduction and impulse
formation in areas of the heart and
can be used as antiarrhythmic
66. The various calcium channel
blockers show differences in their
affinity for vascular smooth
muscle and cardiac muscle cells.
67. Nifedipine and Nicardipine are much
more effective vasodilators than
myocardial depressants
Verapamil is used for its ability to slow
conduction through the heart and has
little effect on vascular muscle tone.
Diltiazem has vasodilator action as well
as antiarrhythmic effects.
70. Contraindications:
hypotension, cardiac shock, and MI.
Side effects: AV block,
bradycardia, headache, dizziness,
abdominal cramps, blurring of
vision, and edema. .
Dosage: Initial 80-120 mg tid
then 240-480 mg /day.
73. Contraindications: hypersensitivity,
lactation.
Side effects: pulmonary and
peripheral edema, MI, hypotension,
headache, muscle cramps.
Dosage: 10- 30 mg tid.
In hypertensive emergencies: 10-20 mg
given orally or sublingually by
puncturing the capsule and squeezing
contents under the tongue.