Graphic Expression of Internment: Three Photo Albums from the United States Holocaust Memorial Museum

8 | GRAPHIC EXPRESSION OF INTERNMENT
photo albums of the ushmm collection
Graphic Expression of Internment refers to the specific
representation of shared graphic art and artifacts of the
Holocaust.The graphic nature of the three photo albums/
scrapbooks addresses the planned or articulated language of
design.The design process connotes editorial decisions made
in the process of articulated planning in their planning and
creation.By definition,graphic design is an art or profession
of visual communication that skillfully combines images,
words,and ideas to convey information to an audience.
Graphic design can also be a form of personal expression that
reflects the attitudes of the community for which the work
is intended.This collection looks at the expressive nature of
design in its ability to structure content,creating a greater
inclusive narrative.Unlike a stack of collected photographs
and album presumes a continued theme or progression.Un
affected photo albums have no notation of content;there
exists no context that identifies cohesiveness themes of
known categories for inclusion.Often photo albums are a
chronological placement of people,places,and events placed
in rhythmical sequence directly ordered according to the
prescribed timeline.Photo albums may contain prescribed
descriptions,or identify people,places,and dates.
Photo albums or scrapbooks have a different
agenda.The photo albums in this collection have specific
purpose and intent—to document and preserve the
experience of place through the extended narrative of
applied design.Organized albums imply careful attention
to drawn similarities and the process of editing is crucial.
The focused attention connotes a cohesive selection.One can
imagine a vast subjective material,the critical methodology
used for selection,or negation,delivers a finished cohesive
album.The specific graphic attention expresses common
visual themes such as documentation,preservation,
dedication,and memorial;reinforced by the medium itself.

There were many forms of designed objects and
ephemera.Items created in harshly restrictive environments
have different visual characteristics than objects in
comparatively relaxed situations.The graphic works created
in Jewish ghettos for example have a feeling of immediacy
about them.I am repeatedly drawn to graphic works created
by Jews during the Holocaust.Common forms of graphic
communication include:maps,signage,camp insignias,
newspapers and periodical,and documents of many forms.
In rare instances,Jewish designers worked for the resistance
creating forged Nazi documents for the direct survival of
individuals.It is hard to imagine design to be so active in such
a dire state of existence.Design commonly reflects cultural
and social development,so to does design aptly capture the
visual aesthetics of life in internment.These albums do not
present us with‘graphic’images of death and destruction,
pain and suffering,or darkness one typically associates with
the Holocaust.The graphic attitudes in these three albums
celebrate optimistic rehabilitation.
There has been previous research offered of
artwork created amidst the Holocaust,often focusing on
children’s artwork,or clandestine subjective representation
of experience and observations.Rarely historical research
looks to analyze‘designed’artifacts from the Holocaust.
My intentions are to illuminate and highlight such works,
and to place them in the history of graphic design as
important contributions to the expressive history of the
medium.The objective nature of design better justly suits
strict documentation of the Holocaust.However,the deeply
personal experience of the Holocaust embeds the personality
and circumstances of the individual and the collective
experience of the community.
PREFACE

This design analysis looks to insert the graphic possibilities of a neglected medium
of a specific time.Two of the three albums were created by individuals who had
previously worked in the design field.Many Jewish artists were revoked of their
craft by the Nazis who deem all works of Jews to be‘degenerate,’and culturally
destructive to the upward popularization of nationalism.
The Prowsaw album was assembled by Peter Prosaw (born Pinkus
Proshowsky) a graphic designer originally from Lodz Poland.Pinkus was a member
of the Bauhaus studying under Walter Gropious before the war.Through his skill
and training his design resembles contemporary design in the continuum of the
Bauhaus and that of Soviet design.
My initial intentions were to include designed objects that had previous
been obscured by design historians.Many design histories leave out objectionable
works created during WWII.Initially I saw a negation of anti-Semitic propaganda.
Upon further analysis I realized an even greater discrepancy of design works by
Jews.Through the Nazi regime all practicing Jewish artist were subjected to stifling
restrictions and further demonized and persecuted.
My further intentions are to document the works of Jews who were
actively creating works with the greatest agenda,to survive.As some Jews
were producing official works in internment camps and ghettos other were
using design to register and document their experience and clandestine fate
of their community.This is design with the highest standards,leaving us with
observational remarks of the persecuted.
EDITORIAL VOICE

Looking at depictions of war through the eyes of the inflicted requires both caution
and reflection.As viewers we are bearing witness second hand,once removed
from inflicted suffering we must take with us careful observations and forgo
preconceived judgements of victimization.Holocaust studies and representation
must simultaneously identify the subtleties of historical reference,a known
understanding of the time line of historical events,crossed with personal journey
and representation of travails.
Visual culture of the Holocaust entails a true displacement of cultural
identity.Many secular Jewish artists lading up to and through their experience of
World War II and the occupation of Nazi regime across Europe suffered tremendous
effects of wandering and displacement.Visual culture represents a collected set of
narrative devices,shared collective language from the greater Jewish Diaspora of
internationally displaced Jews.Strong feelings of Nationalism effected this visual
representation.The established history of the diaspora visually link shared and
collective experience of anti-Semitism and cultural persecution.
OBSERVING WORK CREATED UNDER DISTRESS

This thesis does not use the term internment lightly.Its
proclivity renders an idea of contained freedoms.Internment
camps established across the globe during World War II and
their usage still today depict a strong urgency of communal
fear.Internment camps in America relocated thousands
of Japanese–Americans out of prejudicial fear.American
internment camps were established for German–Americans;
often mixing them in the same facilities with Japanese–
Americans,as well as military POWs.In times of war and civil
unrest,warring nations become uneasy at the prospect of the
enemy within.
During World War II,internment camps established
in‘friendly’countries saw the danger if immigrant refugees.
Assimilated Jews established in Australia for example,feared
the influx of European Jewish refugees,seeing them as a
threat towards their own stable and influential community,
Jews that were able
to immigrate to Australia were initially interned as their
alien status shifted
from‘enemy aliens,’to‘friendly aliens.’Resurgent attitudes
of nationalism necessitated internment camps as a solution
for the confinement of the‘others,’or‘outsiders’.Native
countrymen saw immigrant populations as dangerous for
sympathetic revolution.
In the case of this research,internment camps
have privileges in difference from concentration camps,
prison camps,work camps,and POW camps.This thesis
designates DP camps and refugee camps to fall within
this broadened usage of the term‘internment.’The Oxford
English Dictionary (1989) gives the meaning as“The action
of‘interning,’confinement within the limits of a country or
place.”There is a common distinction between internment;
confined usually for preventative reasons,and imprisonment
which implicates criminal activity.The Oxford English
Dictionary,2nd ed.defines the term further as;a camp where
non-combatants of a district are accommodated.The Nazi
regime in Germany initially made distinctions;interning
political prisoners and foreign nationals before the war
1933-1939;and after the war began in 1939,making dramatic
inclusions for the anti-Semitic justifications of interning
Jews through relocation and death through 1945.Internally
most governments choose to use alternate terms for
internment such as resettlement camps or detention centers.
Early usage of the term ghetto constituted self-internment
like situations.Common European ghettos were Jewish
Quarters designated for anti-Semitic segregation.Not until
Nazi ghettos occupied and forcefully enacted the closure of
ghettos did the tern garner such fear—imagining conditions
of disparity and death.
Whether medical quarantine,political,or social,
internment camps are typical destinations for undesirables
or the displaced.Displaced Persons after the war necessitated
the use of common facilities offering social services to
refugees of all distinctions.Jewish displaced person had
unique and specific needs that largely depended on relief
organizations for the rehabilitation of the European Jewish
Diaspora.While DP camps were not forced per se,conditions
were very unpleasant,specifically after Liberation where
thousands of Jews died before organized relief could attend
to their dire needs.Within the internment / DP system Jews
could work towards their extended freedom.
I use the classification of internment to associate
all forms of suggested imprisonment,whether directed by
force,or by need.After Liberation Jews were left with little
options;housing shortages,destruction,scarcity of food,
and rampant anti-Semitism left Jews without choice.While
thousands of Jews initially returned to their place of origin
after Liberation,many could not cope or were unprepared to
return to a life of normalcy so soon after the wars end again
made their way to DP camps that could offer help and relief
from years of suffering.
ELEMENTS OF INTERNMENT

This abbreviated study aims to illuminate the potential of
the graphic medium as an expressive form of expression in
the context of Holocaust and Jewish studies.While there are
many photographs that constitute portraiture for specific
families and their rich Jewish lineage,few albums establish
a documentary effort that is collective.What this project sets
out to prove is that developing more fully our understanding
of the Holocaust requires blending oral history with non-
traditional forms of documentation.Gathered histories
paired with the individual experience of a common place
create a deeper knowledge of that place.Specific Holocaust
testimonials infuse documentary art forms with a pre-
history,offering the much-needed context in reconstructing
stories of survival or destruction.Acknowledging and
analyzing such pictographic and historical contexts is
decisive in determining the extended fate of individuals’
stories of survival.The Friedler Album documents two DP
camps directed by Moritz W.Friedler. The photo album,
dated 1946-47,consists of pictures from St.Marien,which
was located in the British Zone of Austria;and from Linz,
located in the American Zone.The Prosaw Album represent
both individual stories of survival,and rehabilitation services
of the Düppel DP camp in Berlin Germany dated 1947.
The album/scrapbook was designed and created by Peter
Prosaw who had been a graphic designer before the war
and a survivor of Auschwitz.The Peckham Album contains
photographs,donated by the families from a refugee camp
in Toulouse,dedicating the services of‘the family Huisman’
before their immigration to Toronto Canada.The photo
album was created and illustrated by seventeen-year-old
Max Appelbaum.
All this said,these albums fail to provide their
viewers any kind back-story.Despite the fact that two of
these albums derive from postwar DP camps,they fail to
refer to either World War II or the inhabitants’pre-camp
history.Unlike this anthology,the viewer is permitted only
a brief window onto the two or three years of rehabilitative
conditioning.We must therefore rely on our pre-existing
knowledge to lead us through the war,up to the point
of Jewish liberation in 1945.This thesis does not intend
to provide a full historic survey of artwork generated by
Jews that either perished or survived the Holocaust as
orchestrated by the National Socialist regime.Nor does this
collection aim to offer a definitive retrospective of the varied
camps in which these albums were created.Its purpose
is to highlight and illuminate works generated by Jews
through an artistic gesture that transcends documentation,
dedication,preservation;in short,these albums bear witness
to atrocities of the Holocaust.These three albums represent
resilience and survival;moreover,they invite the possibility
of extending life beyond the time spent in these camps.
But first a few words about the process of studying
the Holocaust,a pursuit that requires an open mind and
creative combination of resources.Art and artifacts from
the Holocaust necessitate a cross- disciplinary study of
documents and ephemeral traces of the past.Self-referential
documents require checks and cross-checks,comparative
analysis of dates,names and name changes,and articles of
proven displacement of people across Europe.Looking into
redundant and obscure translations are necessary to track
the progress of or transgressions against of individuals,
families,and communities lost in the devastation of the
Holocaust.Each individual requires a hunt and gathering of
‘material’witnesses that bear the historical timestamp to
adequately create a continual narrative.Available resources
vary from location to location,and person to person.Every
bit of research together with each gathered database builds
upon the previous findings,reports and historic solutions.
These proposed albums are no exception.The visual culture
of the Holocaust builds upon sensitivity to life and death,
of survival and destruction.Our cultural conscience has
previous tendencies towards images that are witnessed
most often.Previous visual identification began with a cache
of images generated,misrepresented and appropriated,
twisted and obscured,by the propagandist strategies of the
Nazis.The systematic destruction of European Jewry last
beyond the physical destruction of Jews,casting a darkness
that would endure for years,and in many instances over
generations.Survivors of the Holocaust remain soured and
in a persistent state of rehabilitation.This distance created a
significant gap in both histories and documentation.
The graphic language of design has dictated
much of the tone,spirit and texture of cultural and social
positioning throughout the history of modern times.The
INTRODUCTION

visual language established by designers,artists,and
printmakers captures a clandestine timeline that visually
corresponds to the spirit of the times in which they were
set.While historically design has been secondary to literary
culture,it nonetheless can act as a signpost,pointing to the
specificity of place and attitudes of a given day or period
of history.
The graphic work depicted here is of no exception.
The medium of design is used to convey a message to the
masses,document time and place,sell ideas,and market
ideologies.It also conveys personal conviction.Much
documentation and research has previously depicted the
strong hold of Nazi propaganda.Analysis of this material
calls attention to the strength,power,and call for support
en masse as well as its anti-Semitic context.The abundance
of this material lies in part due to systematic disbursement
of material through the office of public enlightenment
and propaganda.The power and dissemination along
with massive quantities of production has allowed these
documents and ephemera to prevail.Cast another way,these
objects and how they were designed would be forgotten by
many generalists in terms of how .Many forms of creative
production allow the stories of individuals under enforced
systematic hardship and persecution to be told.These
documents,created by Jews act to document their experience
and justify their emotional response.Many documents
created by Jews survive due to clandestine outcomes and
responses to their efforts to share their stories;to hear their
cries and offer proof of the devastation they witnessed.The
isolated numbers of each artifact constitute a direct and
qualitative depiction of the 6,000,000 Jews murdered
by the Nazis.
Clandestine stories involve isolated incidents
that occurred,allowing hidden,smuggled,and stored
items to emerge after the war was over.Witnesses and
authors returned to claim their works.Creative works of
art and design created directly after liberation in 1945
generated an atmosphere of reparation as well as a dire
need to document immediately one’s experience as well
as emotional healing devices.Many Jews would document
their stories to possess their own survivals as a means of
coping with the realization that their entire families had
been destroyed—In other words,these works ask both how
and why.After limited testimonials,many would allow
their painful experiences to escape,some never telling their
story again.The effectiveness of Holocaust studies relies on a
variety of media to develop an isolated story of an individual,
family,or community.Collective resourcefulness requires a
consistent and pervasive analysis and determination within
every possible model of documentation and articulation
of historical proof.The media at one’s disposal constitutes
the possibilities of language barriers,statehood,missing
and displaced documents,and the like.The need to use
comparative and analytic data sets is clear.Some documents
prove to be of greater value,while others offer very little
return.Much of the gathered information requires a look
at Nazi records;these records offer sadistic insight into
otherwise unobtainable facts.To gather and articulate
combined resources allows the greatest possibility for
clarity in reconstructing stories of survival as well as stories
of destruction.To establish the Jewish narrative of the
Holocaust researchers have at their disposal a variety of
document types.Common articles are photographs,diaries,
journals,testimonials,legal and immigration documents,
ephemera,oral histories,artifacts,and I argue,objects
by design.
The reconstruction of Europe and,more
significantly,the Jews around the world left the Holocaust
dormant for years,partly out of respect and appropriateness,
and partly out of emotional and spiritual rehabilitation.The
radically displaced surviving Jewish community sat Shiva
in sorrowful mourning.Displacement was a reprieve from
death and obliteration;however,the long-term consequences
remain forever infused with the devastating annihilation
of six million Jews.Retrieving history is a daunting
assemblage of past and present,displacement of location,
and obscured documentation.Contrasting analysis from
oral histories,organizational tracing organizations,thesis,
and discoveries,translation happens both linguistically
and as symbolic gestures that permit a leap of faith to
necessitate the contrasting potentially of conflicting
resources.Understanding and developing histories of the
Holocaust necessitates multiple resources acting together
to create and manifest a semblance of the obscured

narrative.Like a Talmudic scholar studying the oral history
of Jewish law,multiple reference commentaries are set in
contrast and alignment,while still open to discourse and
interpretation.The main subject does not change,however,
our interpretation adjusts to our experience and knowledge
set.Each seemingly disparate piece continually adds greater
depth to the knowledge base and therefore a developing
repository that,ultimately,constitutes history.
The three albums documented here offer a varied spectrum
of observation and documentation.The Friedler album
offers no editorial comments.Its design is simple.Other
than the occasional identification text identifying location,
the illustrations carry the weight of linking each workroom
to the skill services in each workroom.The monotony of
Jews sitting at workroom tables does not allude to their
setting.Only the specificity of each silhouetted illustration
lends a narrative form.The Friedler album extends images
of Nazi work camps,while the purpose of the DP camp is
oppositional to the Nazi concentration and death camps.
Are we to subtly gain an editorial commentary on the actual
feelings and proceedings
of these refugees?
The trained order of the Prosaw Album specifically
identifies each moment and organizes sub-divisions that
we see an overwhelming level of organization,that feels
presumably forced.Again,we ask if this is to be interpreted
as an extension of the visual narrative,and its effects on
interpretation.This interpretation is reinforced by the entire
collection,edited sets of images that we only get from entire
photo albums.The effectiveness of the designed elements
as a whole altered,edited,and manipulated albums makes
us ask more of it.Un-designed albums can only be seen as
random collections,whereas the importance the designer
has also extends its message into something greater.
The Peckham Album was created by Max
Applebaum,who at the age of seventeen,lends a naïve
and playful interpretation of him;moreover, his isolated
community’s interaction with the camp director for
whom which the album was created constitutes another
dimension of this album’s documentary value.Similar to a
working graphic novel,the illustrations break form,lending
invaluable commentary to the photos provided and donated
by the various families in the refugee camp.In effect,the
illustrations remove the need for translation.Although
loaded with community asides,each renders a near perfect
interpretation of the embedded photos.The combination
was specific to the understanding of the director Jacob and
his wife Judith.The playfulness is a selected narrative set
created for the appreciation of a knowledgeable few.Only
through removed translation do we truly understand the
youthful wit,sense of humor,and play of this young artist.
Graphic Expression of Internment illuminates the
process of design as an important medium in the further
analysis of Holocaust studies.The graphic attention given to
the three photo albums selected in this study fully renders
the articulated observations beyond that of a static photo
album with a collection of placed photographs.There are
many examples of photo albums collected and gathered by
Jews before World War II.Many of the available volumes
chronicle both family and community life before World War
I through the beginning of the Nazi regime.As a community-
and family-driven society,photo albums capture the spirit
and lineage of multiple generations within various sectors
of the Diaspora of European Jews.Community albums
consisted of Yeshiva students and scholars,political and
Zionist organizations,community welfare associations,and
privileged society and families.With the growing popularity
of photography,amateur and professional photographers
alike documented and preserved the communal life of towns,
cities,villages and urban metropolitan life from the Ukraine,
Russia,Germany,France,Belgium,Poland,the Netherlands,
the Balkan States,and the Mediterranean.
And yet looking at depictions of war through the
eyes of the inflicted requires both caution and reflection.
As viewers,we are bearing witness second hand,once
removed from inflicted suffering we must take with us
careful observations and forgo preconceived judgments of
victimization.Holocaust studies and related representations
must simultaneously identify the subtleties of historical
reference,a known understanding of the time line of
historical events,crossed with personal journey and
representation of travails.
Much of the visual culture related to the Holocaust
gestures toward a true displacement of cultural identity.

Many secular Jewish artists leading up to and through
their experience of World War II and occupation by the
Nazi regime across Europe suffered tremendous effects
of wandering and displacement.The surviving traces of
visual culture offer a collected set of narrative devices,
shared collective language from the greater Jewish
Diaspora of internationally displaced Jews.Strong feelings
of Nationalism effected this visual representation.The
established history of the Diaspora visually link shared and
collective experience of anti-Semitism and
cultural persecution.
This design analysis looks to insert the graphic
possibilities of a neglected medium of a specific time.
Individuals who had previously worked in the design field
create the representations presented here.Many Jewish
artists had been denied the right to practice their craft by the
Nazis who deemed all work by Jews to be‘degenerate’and
culturally destructive to the upward popularization
of nationalism.
This book illuminates three albums from the
USHMM art and artifacts archive collection.Each album is a
rare and precious collection of photos that richly document
life in DP camps in Berlin and Austria,as well as the unique
and historically obscure refugee camp in the southern
French city of Toulouse.Like illuminated manuscripts,each
album consists of a near complete collection of photos
that document experience and activities of each unique
experience.Each album includes graphic illustrations that
furthermore contribute to a deeper story of experience.
The artists and designers featured in these three
collections were trained artists and designers.Pinkus
Proshowsky,a graphic designer,assembled the Prosaw
album originally from Lodz.Proshowsky was a member of
the Bauhaus,where he studied under Walter Gropious before
the war.Through his skill and training,Proshowskys design
resembles contemporary design in the continuum of the
Bauhaus and that of Soviet design.

My initial intention was to include designed objects that
had previously been obscured by design historians.Many
design histories leave out objectionable works created
during WWII.Initially I saw a negation of anti-Semitic
representation.Upon further analysis,I found an even
greater discrepancy in design works by Jews.Under the Nazi
regime,all practicing Jewish artists were subjected to stifling
restrictions,demonized and persecuted.My intentions are
also to document the works of Jews who created works with
the largest agenda:to survive.As some Jews produced official
works in internment camps and ghettos,others used design
to register and document their experience and clandestine
fate of their communities.This is design with the highest
standards,leaving us with observational remarks of
the persecuted.
The Jewish religion had previously prohibited
religious likeness and therefore prohibited the production of
icons.The ability to capture family life became increasingly
important and popular.Portraiture dominated the initial
Jewish appreciation of the photographic medium.Influential
Jews,which flourished in assimilated and secular practices,
had a fondness for capturing the moment and activity
outside daily routine.Images of family vacations and
recreational time were the predominant imagery of these
pictures.A wonderful and deep collection of isolated photos
has survived the war.These precious images were saved,
stored,and deemed vital in the continued importance and
continuity of the family.Sores of clandestinely preserved
images survived ghettos,internment camps,and even the
killing centers of Auschwitz.Among the possessions with
which many Jews relocated,cherished family photographs
feature prominently amongst those items saved and
cared for with high esteem.After Liberation,many of the
internment and death camps contained a large number of
preserved photos that had been hidden by inmates or Jewish
councils,as well as Jewish‘Sonderkommandos’with the duty
of sorting through processed inmates’possessions.

When intact,photo albums emotional and historic
importance increases.The preciousness of a complete or near
complete,album allows a greater narrative story to unfold.
The prospect of a family collection of images,at times,can
be used to complete a broken story.Clues to the unknown
can emotionally reconnect survivors to the extreme loss of
an entire family.A photo album,a determined collection
of photos,can be organized chronologically by event,while
portraiture of past generations records infancy to childhood
or catalogues membership in a community or
religious group.
The photo archive of the USHMM consists of images
in isolation,images gathered from found collections or
sources;some are even fortunate enough to be contained in a
complete album.Photo albums with their inherent collected
structure as contained within a single bound volume offer
an invaluable opportunity for producing narratives to
accompany their images.Individual images,now paired
with equally contained photos,can create a context to
an extended narrative.This narrative may be planned or
inadvertently assigned with the physicality of one coherent
collection.When looking at a photo album the intention of
the collection is often obscured.However,when one comes
across an illuminated or graphically altered album,the
greater intent often moves to the forefront,offering forth a
more intelligible message than might otherwise be evident.
With the graphically annotated album,certain historical
details can be determined with great authority.
Whether a professional designer or visual artist has
crafted the album is not in question.The graphic nature of
artifacts with purpose has an increased illumination through
the designed or planned process.Certain elements can
identify pattern,scale,and elements of repetition,sequential
ordering,and rhythm.These common design elements
structure the content allowing a complete interpretation of
the similarities or differences from one photo to another,or
from one page to next.Design elements that link pages do so
visually as well,presumably,thematically.Pages with shared
illustration often link the photographs to a common idea,
process,table,or category of inclusion.Designed or altered
photo albums consider the narrative string that links shared
attributes to well defined categories of reference.Whether
graphic or illustrated,additional editorial elements unify
the entire collection by defining the sequence for individual
themes from one set of pages to another.
The graphic expression used in the three collections
in this volume vastly differs from collection to collection.
I chose these particular albums for each one’s unique and
varied approach to render a greater narrative understanding
for each album—independently from one another.The
graphic styles of each of the three albums vary greatly.In
each album,the language extends the narrative to convey
the intent of the artist or designer.
Our understanding and interpretation of the
Holocaust is often an interpretation seen through the
perpetrators’eyes.Some of the most notable images were
created and disseminated through Nazi documentation,
falsely chronicling the destruction of European Jews.Upon
further analysis,the greater stories come not from Nazi
destruction,but rather from stories of the victims’survival.
Common articles of study use a rich mixture of biography,
testimonial,diary excerpts,and recorded archives.The
clandestine articles of survival remain intact.To quote
graphic artist Lawrence Weiner,“bits and pieces create a
semblance of the whole.”
Studying the artistic works of persecuted Jews lends
a deeper story—a visual story.Photo albums created and
collected before World War II,depict a rich family history.
Images of entire families,gatherings,and generational
documentation shift the focus from the family unit to the
story of the individual that either survived or perished,as
well as the extended networks of family members that
were killed in the war.While photo albums are successful in
documenting a family in its entirety,altered albums create a
new rich context.
An altered album has personal details embedded
in its very selection of images.Articulated proportions begin
to reveal a secondary narrative through the retraceable
thoughts and story interpreted and disseminated by
the creator.This collection of photo albums looks at the
rehabilitation of community.The selected albums collect
images of the Diaspora,a community of displaced persons
reassembled,a community gathered.

Design strategies attempt to re-contextualize and
structure content to create a new or greater context.Editing
content articulates the essence,and focuses the attention
on the inter connectedness.These albums can offer an
elaboration on the typical chronological family photo album,
which generally orders and illuminates past generations,
specific moments,and occasions offering only a glimpse
of the actual timeline of events.Photo albums have the
opportunity to carry family attitudes,encourage reflection,
and offer documentation of genealogy.
The history of the photograph,and its increasing
popularity allowed less formal presentations and portraits.
Family photo albums at the turn of the century became
for the first time recreational.By the end of the 1900’s,the
photographic medium evolved from scientific imaging to
entertainment and artistic expression.These photos albums
extend the familiar narrative of family by portraying the
wholeness of the communities for which they were created.
The Friedler Album captures the importance of
DP camps in educating communities and preparing them
for their lives in the aftermath of the devastation of the
Holocaust.Rehabilitation of mind,body,and spirit was
essential for the development and growth of the remaining
community.Displaced Jews had many things to overcome
and cast behind them.A DP camp facilitated the process of
overcoming their not-so-distant past experiences.As Europe
was recuperating from the war,borders were to be redrawn
and political situations were constantly shifting,as these
individuals vied for postwar compensation and assessment
of blame.The purpose of a DP camp was to strengthen the
confidence,while reallocating ones sense of place.With so
many lives lost,the need to‘go home,’for many were neither
desired or a potential option.Many displaced persons were
awaiting systems to their identity and self worth.The
political spectrum remained skeptical and divided as to the
solution of return.
The Nazis systematically gathered Jews from all
over Europe in order to destroy them.Liberation forces could
only accommodate a handful of requests for return.A new
system had to be put into place to accommodate the welfare
of entire dislocated communities.Initially after Liberation,
many Jews returned home however they could,only to find
destruction and more anti-Semitism.Once home,a survivor
still had the possibility of facing persecution and starvation,
not to mention the acknowledgement that they were the
last remnants of their families and communities.Once back
in the village,town or county of origin,they faced many
obstacles.Many returned to find their homes occupied or
destroyed.Agencies,such as the international red cross
and joint distribution committee,actively sought for
people’s return,or repatriated,while legislative restriction
made repatriation difficult.The extended application for
visas and proper emigration papers required a tremendous
effort.With their communities destroyed,many were left to
rebuild a semblance of a life again,while still agonizing over
the loss of family members,loss of property,loss of children,
and loss of parents.
Both the Friedler Album and the Prosaw Album
chronicle the activities of communities during the first few
weeks and years of rehabilitation.Men of the surviving
Jewish councils reestablished their roles,which included
funding social services,welfare programs,medical attention,
food rationing,refuge for children,and work allocations.
These councils were dependant on international reparation
organizations,and .members coming from affected countries
sought immediate retribution and allocations.
At the turn of the century,secular and religious
Jewish organizations offered the European community the
prospect of either Zionism or Socialist unification.These
political themes embedded the visual aesthetic of the Jewish
community Zionism influenced visual themes with the
glory of return to Jewish statehood.The Star of David and
brilliant hues of blue and goldenrod with the optimistic
promise of a guaranteed homeland.Socialist values unified
people through the promise of a Jewish Russia and Eastern
Europe.Socialism and the avant-garde aesthetic encouraged
the unification of the people’s community en masse.Bold
graphic use of color and imagery of the masses supported
the strength‘of the people.’Highly developed aesthetics that
could brightly illustrate communities of religious strength
and conviction.
The remaining proof of the survival of these photo
albums directly confronts the Nazi agenda to destroy the
Jews.The photo album graphically documents survival and

the persistence of community.Both the Friedler and Prosaw
albums depict the continuation of life—after the Holocaust
depicting life in (DP) Displaced Persons camp after Liberation
in 1945.By documenting the importance of life in the DP
camps is to confirm the raw emotions of those surviving Nazi
concentration camps,work camps,and death camps.Life
for Jews immediately after Liberation remained difficult at
best.While Jews recognized their freedom,life in DP camps
were crowded,diseases such as typhoid plagued the camps.
Food supplies were low in supply and high in demand by the
large population of survivors at the conclusion of the war.In
Germany,the entire population was under strict rationing,
and food supplies in the camps were in great demand.
Throughout the war,the Jewish councils organized life and
welfare systems for prison camps and ghetto communities.
Jewish councils worked to reestablish and organize the
transition from prison camps to the prospect of returning to
ones homeland.
In the development of revealing Holocaust stories,
a major contributing factor for consideration is the notion
of location.Location of survivors directly contributed to
their success,or their destruction.The first wave of the
displacement of Jews came in 1933,when Adolf Hitler became
Reich leader and Chancellor of Germany.A minority of
concerned Jews left Germany for France,the Netherlands,
Switzerland,and Czechoslovakia,those with connection
outside Europe immigrated to America,England and
Palestine.In 1939,when war broke out an estimated 110,00
German Jewish refugees were spread across Europe.1

Again,the goal of this research is to illuminate the
contents and the importance of the graphic medium
while allowing the contents to present its self with room
for interpretation.With this,I ask that further questions
arise that can be expounded on.This is the medium of
Holocaust studies—question,counter question.While
each of the three albums illuminate similar themes of
the Holocaust such as:remembrance,bearing witness,
dedication,memorial,and renewal,they each represent
experience in diverse manifestations.Each album produced
for specific communities documents an optimist view,
defiant of the experience of camp life.Unlike clandestine
works documenting hardship or perseverance,these
albums provide insightful awareness to the personalized
characteristic in each‘internment’camp.
1 Gutman,238.

Beyond the historical analysis of the Holocaust lie millions
of narratives in isolation,as the collective hole (sic) began
to return to normalcy after World War II,initial Holocaust
Studies began to focus on the reasoning and outcomes of
the devastating effects inflicted by the Nazi regime on Jews
across Europe.Documentation projects established by the
UNRRA and ORT allowed Nazi documents to be returned to
Jews,enabling rehabilitation and repatriatism.Articulated
narrative histories began to reclaim a community
forever lost.These structured narratives are important
in establishing dates and events as base“set points”of
reference.Using these set points,researchers can track and
comparatively analyze locations with those events and those
who survived,with those who perished.
Strict legal sanctions of Jews began in Germany
after the Nuremberg Racial Laws in 1935.Jews were
legally removed from most areas of public life.Leading
up to Kristallnacht,‘Night of broken glass,’in 1938,Jews
were allowed to practice their trade in isolation amongst
themselves.This too applied to Jewish artists practicing
in the Reich,Jewish artists were initially seen as political
opponents;similar to communists,socialists,and other
anti-Nazis.The work of prominent Jewish artists was seen as
un-German in the sanctioned nationalist form.Jewish artists
at the time had been heavily influenced by expressionist
and styles associated with Bolshevism and Russian art
communities.This style of work officially declared by the
Nazi regime as‘degenerate art’.Only Nazi approved works
of art was to be supported by the regime,anything deemed
inappropriate was declared illegal and punishable for its
creation,as the war developed,so too the severity for Jewish
artists.Once in power the Nazi regime was quick to condemn
‘modern art.’Art works depicting Jews was considered and
deemed‘inferior,’‘evil’and‘degenerate,’subsequently Jews
were banned from both art museums and art schools
across Germany.1
In the concentration camp system,the creation of
artwork was also forbidden,and if caught punishable and
even immediate death.However,there were exceptions
of German soldiers and SS military officers that often
conscripted Jewish artists for work.Works deemed as
German approved Jewish artist often had the ability to
leverage their work,translating into special treatment
and survival.Other artistic services were also needed in
work camps and ghettos.Jewish councils who attended to
the daily organization used designers and artists to create
signage,published material,ration coupons,and in some
instances currency.This work was not only employable but
also conscripted as necessity by German and Nazi directors.
This system allowed for the bargaining of materials,often
using the left over materials for the creation of clandestine
personal works,further documenting ghetto life,or in some
cases advancing resistance.
Regardless of the work created,artists of the
Holocaust created works under extreme conditions.Sadly,
similar to an art movement,artwork of the Holocaust would
commonly reflect similar motifs,attitudes,and styles of
representation with a subject matter that portrayed the daily
horrors presented to them all.Artists in strict concentration
camps,work camps,POW camps,and internment camps
the prisoners were unable to rely on former values or
perceptions.The power of physical work,pain and fear,
and the will to survive allowed the creation of work to
serve three functions.In Art of the Holocaust Janet Blatter
identifies these three functions as 1.a link to ones former
identity,2.a mental bridge to the prospect of a future 3.a
way to document their experience.2
For displaced persons in
internment camps it was also a method of rehabilitation and
service,the transcendence of creating works that would now
extend the experience and document the process if survival
and renewal.
Scholars argue to the official dates of inclusion
to consider art of the Holocaust,most place these creation
dates between 1939-1945.I argue in the works generated in
this study to include works of DP camps from 1945 to 1950,
when final displacement camps were no longer needed.
Holocaust scholar Janet Blatter states the historic conditions
of the Holocaust directly affected the works generated
in terms of acquiring materials,creative intentions,and
subject matter.3
While I do not disagree,I feel the inclusion
of artwork generated in DP camps follows her framework,
and more importantly mirrors the conditions and attitudes
as a continuation of internment.While the direct conditions
may be more lenient,the camp lifestyle still embedded in
HOLOCAUST ART 1 Blatter,23.
2 Ibid.,24.
3 Ibid.,21.

many displaced Jews.In the book Art of the Holocaust,Janet
Blatter favorably argues that highly artistic creations and
historical documents reflect their subject matter,what the
artists reveal about themselves,as well as the conditions
under which they worked.4
Some critics still argue the
‘documentary validity’of highly subjective artistic works,
citing the potential of emotional and stylistic distortion.Here
again I make the argument in favor of these three designers
and artists in this collection.The Friedler Collection,Peter
Prosaw,and Max Appelbaum use artistic methodology
in the creation and editing of these albums creating a
prescribed narrative that illuminates their experience,after
the war in mental and physical rehabilitation.The work of
Max Appelbaum directly reflects his isolated experience in
southern France.
The three albums reflect a widened range of current
European art influences leading up to the war.The Freidler
Collection contains volkish (of the people),attitudes in the
representation of camp activities outside the Holocaust
experience.There is a contrast of elements between hand
rendered typography,photographic placement,and
inclusion of contemporary symbols of the‘Motoring School.’
Peter Prosaw’s lightly articulate and stylized rendering
identifies his previous education.His work echoes Bauhaus,
Avant-garde,and Russian Constructivists design themes
supported by the previous Weimar Republic and all of
Europe.The illustrations of Max Appelbaum reflect abstract
and expressionist themes favored in his homeland of the
Netherlands.At his juvenile age one might identify his work
as naïve,hover his renderings and creation of the initial
map,graphically represent Dutch geometric constructed
abstraction.
Jewish artists in concentration and internment
camps had the most difficulty in both obtaining materials
and the prospect of their creations making it beyond
camp perimeters.Similar to transit camps during the
war,DP camps were far more lenient and even fostered
the creation of rehabilitative artwork.In refugee camps
similar to Toulouse,international relief agencies such as
the international red cross,JDC,and UGIF among other
non-Jewish support agencies were able to send art materials.
In refugee camps and some concentration camps during
the war,regulations allowed support and supplemental
packages,even mail was exchanged.Refugee and transit
camps allowed the interaction of prisoners allowing
materials and artists the ability to share their works and
generate portraits of fellow inmates.These advantages all
created a positive attitude for the creation of art.The tighter
the restriction,such as death camps,there exists no forms
of remaining art work;there simply was not enough time,
as the circumstances were unworldly.In the refugee camp
in Toulouse,young Max would have the ability with Dutch,
Belgian,and French relief organizations to get art materials
such as paint and paper for his album.The unknown
French artist of the Friedler album and Mr.Prosaw had the
greatest availability—food rations would have been harder
to come by.Art material were supplied to the entirety of
the camp,they were meant to be shared and encouraged as
entertainment and rehabilitative activities to pass the time,
as well as materials for the educational workshops supported
by the UNRRA and ORT.The situation in the DP camps in
Berlin and Austria,as well as the openness of the refugee
camp in Toulouse ensured the works to survive and directly
correlates between the medium,brilliance of color,and
materials of use for these rare and precious documents and
expressions of internment.
Janet Blatter accounts for the need for artists to
create during such a horrific and life threatening situation.
A complete audit of Holocaust material would indicate
that art of the Holocaust was extremely varied.The variety
represents when and where works were created.To quote
Janet Blatter in Art of the Holocaust,“The Holocaust did
not nurture any particular style because,in the very act
of creating,the artists were refusing to acknowledge its
terrible power.”5
Blatter’s research continues and states that,
post-war works of art more closely resemble stereotypes of
war,offering grotesque exaggeration drawn from dramatic
memory.She also states that artists needed to put a distance
between themselves and their circumstances.Peter Prosaw,
and Max Appelbaum each have an essence of detachment,
but each uses the language of design,their artistic medium,
to chronicle events of place as they interpret it.The
iconography of each of these albums denies us the typical
war imagery or stereotypes of the war.
4 Blatter,22
5 Ibid.,34.

With the exception that we know the dates,places,
and artists responsible for their creations these works
offer us very little that they were victims of the Holocaust.
The artists capture these places in their glory and seldom
depict their awareness of the horrors behind the scenes.
These artists drew their personal testimony of their direct
circumstances,offering little reflective commentary or
editorial commentary of their past situations;instead care
to iterate the daily events,large and small.The Friedler
Collection gives no visual detail to the displacement of their
fellow Jews.Only scant symbols gesture the past effects of
the Nazis.The unknown artist includes a likeness of the Star
of David armband on a yellow field that Jews had previously
been required to wear.Peter Prosaw organizes each page
according to offices and events.Only one mentioning,“A
Jew meets in Berlin an SS man,the murder of his family.”Max
Appelbaum also depicts a singular tank;only his direct
reference and label suggest it is the size of the women also
portrayed on the page.There is sardonic humor,or dead pan
plainness that shows their horror with a slightness of humor,
this ultimately shows acts of defiance and resistance to their
experience inflicted upon them.Miriam Novitch,Director of
the holocaust museum at kibbutz lochanei haghettabt
in Israel refers to all Holocaust art as“Spiritual resistance.”
Artists recorded what they saw for posterity,so that future
generations would know what happened.6
The survival of Holocaust works of art is a complex
study of provenance.Many works were hidden in remote
locations;inside walls,buried in containers,left with
neighbors,or smuggled out by relief efforts.Both the Friedler
album and Prosaw album do not need to suffer this fate.
Both albums were equally created after Liberation before
immigration;they had all the advantages of time,which
many internment works of art did not.They still serve a vital
record of DP camps and the obstacles they had to overcome.
The uniqueness of the Peckham album is attributed
to its early date of 1942.Up to this point camps operated
by the French Vichy government offered a comparatively
lenient atmosphere.Other objects from the similar area
in southern France were presented to rescue workers from
internationally funded organizations which allowed them
to operate there.These agencies also supplied paper,paints,
pencils,and other materials.Artists in turn supplied aid
workers with works of art in trade.In Art of the Holocaust,
Sybil Milton states in her section titled“The legacy of
Holocaust Art,”that“ local contacts,gifts,chance,and bribery
saved the art of the Vichy camps from 1939-1942;almost
nothing survived from the period after July 1942,when mass
deportations to the east commenced.”7
This information
suggests the history that directly followed the circumstances
presented to Max Appelbaum dated 1942.The oral history
provides us with information reinforcing by Max’s
illustration.The camp director Jacob Huisman for whom the
album is created,and his wife Judith along with their son
Michele,were able to immigrate to Toronto Canada in April
of 1942.This example indicates the importance of blending
multiple Holocaust resources;the first being the artifact,and
the second the oral history produced by the donor’s uncle
who survived with his parents.Had the family Huisman
stayed much longer in France,they and the collection
may have been lost.The oral history continues where Max
Applebaum’s artwork left off.Through this testimony do we
learn that Max and his parents also pictured in the album
survived.Without much detail,Max returned to Holland
after the war—this is left for another story.The process of
events and the study of design artifacts,along with artistic
expression can shed meaningful light upon subsequent
stories of survival,or question the results of all the other
families in the photographs of this album.
6 Blatter,30.
7 Milton,38.

After Nazi defeat and Liberation in 1945,millions if
displaced persons wandered through devastated Europe.
Approximately 7 million to 9 million were uprooted
by the war.The end of 1945 would repatriate 6 million
to their former national states.Of the remaining 1.5
million approximately 250,000 survivors were Jewish;
of this population 200,00 had been liberated from Nazi
concentration camps,extermination caps,or rescued from
death marches across the former Reich.Heim Genizi writes
that,“Jewish survivors of concentration camps were wrecked
people physically and mentally.”1
The state of DP camps at the end of the war through
the fall of 1945 continued to be fatal for survivors;nutrition,
sanitary conditions,and camp accommodations were poor,
even poorer still for Jewish survivors as they were exposed to
humiliation and anti-Semitic attacks from non-Jews.When
the war ended,Nazi concentration camps were liberated by
Russian,British,and American armed forces.Most of the
Jewish DP camps were in the British Zone in northern Austria
and the American Zone consisting of Berlin in the south.In
the summer of 1945,the Harrison Commission appointed by
Harry S.Truman improved living conditions in the American
Zone in comparison to Liberation.Bergen Belsen,a former
Nazi concentration camp was in was considered the British
Zone would not see dramatic improvements for months.
The majority of the Jewish survivors were not
prepared to return to their former life,especially in anti-
Semitic Eastern Europe.Upon return,Jews face retribution,
deprivation,or continued pogroms of annihilation.At the
time of Liberation,the majority of Jews found in Nazi camps
were at the end of their strength,malnourished,diseased,
and in shock.Israel Gutman states,“At the end of 1946 the
number of Jewish DPs was estimated at 250,000,of whom
185,000 were in Germany,45,000 in Austria,and 20,000 in
Italy.”2
These DPs consisted mostly of Polish Jews.Many of
western European Jews were able to return to their countries
of origin.

Relief organizations formerly working in Spain
shifted their emphasis on the DP camps of Europe.Agencies
such as the american jewish joint distribution
committee;the joint;(JDC);or (AJDC);and the united
nations relief and rehabilitation administration
(UNRRA),poised themselves to provide basic necessities of
life and act as principally supervisory agencies to all non-
governmental relief organizations.An estimated forecast
for quick repatriation of Jewish DPs was mired in political
and national litigation and ongoing debate.The supreme
headquarters of the allied expeditionary forces in
europe (SHAEF) would be responsible for the provisions
of housing,food,clothing,and medical supplies;and the
UNRRA would provide recreational facilities,health and
welfare services,and other supplementary functions.3
Other
agencies such as the international red cross societies of
France,the Netherlands,Belgium,and Sweden were crucial
to the implementation of social services.The immediate goal
of all,although of differing opinions,was the immigration
and repatriation of the interned.Initial refugee problems in
Germany,Austria,and Italy differed greatly from nation to
nation.The initial 7 million DPs were;Russian POWs,and
Slavic laborers,as well as Lithuanians,Latvians,Ukrainians,
and Poles fleeing the Russian advances;seeking refuge in
both British and American Zones.Political pressures would
limit the support and need of this group by arranging for
them to go home with concessions by the Russians.The
Jewish population would remain with serious complications
and a great amount of bargaining ahead of them.The work of
Jewish agencies is separate from non-Jewish agencies as the
immediate sensitive difference was the character
of Jewish DPs.
1 Genizi,28.
2 Gutman,377.
3 Genizi,19.
DISPLACED PERSONS (DP) camps

Another agency that promised well-defined services for Jews
was the organization for rehabilitation and training
(ORT) The initial ORT director in Germany Louis J.Walinsky
stated,the objectives of the Program of the World ORT
Union,in brief,are to give vocational training to some 12,00
Jewish DPs in the year 1947.1
The ORT instructively taught 19
different types of skills in 42 separate training installations
with 230 different courses in 38 subjects.2
Between 1946-
1947 the instructors were themselves DPs;this factor led
to the huge success and self-sustaining organizational
methodology.The ORT instilled the appreciation;dignity,
and recognition of work.It vastly restored morale,making
them self-supportive thus improving their immigration
opportunities.
In 1947,the central committee,the jewish
agency,and ‘the joint’set up an autonomous educational
system.3
Under great organizational difficulties,an elaborate
school system was established.In one years time the system
complemented itself creating an active rehabilitating
methodology that allowed the community to thrive.The
educational programming consisted of agricultural training;
nursery school;elementary schools;religious schools for
girls;and Talmudic academies,or Yeshivas for boys;it also
established Zionist youth organizations.The agricultural
initiatives prepared youths for immigration eligibility
to Palestine.Many of these organizations,established by
the ORT,would thrive and further be used as inspirational
models in the upcoming establishment of the State of Israel.
The ORT was also crucial in establishing
newspapers and documentation services.The highly
developed political sense of the DPs found its expression
by publishing more than seventy newspapers printed in
Hebrew and Yiddish.Again,these newspapers would carry
the Zionist inspiration and accelerate towards the
future of Israel.

The processing and organization of DPs proved
a long drawn out and politically conservative process of
international checks and balances.American immigration
policy set tight restrictions and lobbied intently for
resettlement rather than immigration.American Jews in
the JDC,however empathetic favored resettlement within
European countries rather than Jewish DPs immigration
to the United States.the dp act of 1945 required advanced
social planning including assurances for housing and skilled
employment for economic stability.4
The long disheartening
process of immigration often took a minimum of eight to
nine months.The internment caused restlessness and the
continuation of stress amongst the surviving community.
The success of the ORT training and rehabilitation
programs prepared survivors with emotional and
professional strength;a strength that had dissipated through
years of terror.This strength positioned Jews for their direct
immigration—primarily to Palestine.Initial reluctance by
the British government,which controlled Palestine until its
conversion to Israel,gave way to American Jewish interest,
which envisioned Palestine as the best possible solution
to the Jewish immigration problem.The self-sustaining
directedness of the ORT created the atmosphere for powerful
success.Zionist organizations also saw this as an important
movement towards a potential statehood for Jews.
Commemoration and documentation projects,
initially established by the ORT,created methods to bring
Nazi criminals to trial by collecting documentary materials
of DPs.These early documents,which still used today,were
the earliest forms of Holocaust studies.Their fruitful efforts
created the nuremberg trials of nazi war criminals
in 1945-1946,and subsequent trials of conspirators through
1949.The DP chapter;with the organization and development
of the UNRRA,ORT,and a multitude of independent relief
organizations,in effect created the State of Israel in 1948.The
last of the DPs gloriously immigrated to Israel in 1950.
THE ORGANIZATION FOR
REHABILITATION AND TRAINING
ORGANIZATION (ORT)
4 Genizi,32.
5 Ibid.,33.
6 Gutman,383.
7 Genizi,114.

The research of art and artifacts reveals a complex and
nuanced archive of documentation.While some collections
offer a plethora of documentation,others seemingly
exist among themselves.Collections of the United States
Holocaust Memorial Museum consist of donor files.These
documents offer a greater understanding and development
of a rich collected narrative.Donor files may contain
correspondence to the genealogical history offering an
in-depth study.Many documents reference subsequent
searchable contents revealing a family history that accounts
for survivors as well as victims of the Holocaust.The three
collections in this volume:Friedler,Prosaw,and the Peckham
offer commentaries and historical references to each of the
donor families collected experience.Each of these studies
reveal an in-depth history of the collection and offer even
further investigations for future development.
ART AND ARTIFACTS OF THE USHMM

Text and Research by
JOHN P. CORRIGAN
Published independently in
association with The United States
Holocaust Memorial Museum in
Washington,D.C.
The United States Holocaust Memorial Museum is America’s national
institution for the documentation, study, and interpretation of
Holocaust history, and serves as this country’s memorial to the
millions of people murdered during the Holocaust. The Holocaust
was the state-sponsored, systematic persecution and annihilation
of European Jewry by Nazi Germany and its collaborators between
1933 and 1945. Jews were the primary victims—six million were
murdered; Gypsies, the handicapped, and Poles were also targeted
for destruction or decimation for racial, ethnic, or national reasons.
Millions more, including homosexuals, Jehovah’s Witnesses, Soviet
prisoners of war, and political dissidents, also suffered grievous
oppression and death under Nazi tyranny. The Museum’s primary
mission is to advance ad disseminate knowledge about this
unprecedented tragedy; to preserve the memory of those who
suffered; and to encourage its visitors to reflect upon the moral and
spiritual questions raised by the events of the Holocaust as well as
their own responsibilities as citizens of a democracy.
100 Raoul Wallenberg Place, SW
Washington, D.C.
20024-2126
www.ushmm.org

Janet Blatter and Sybil Milton,Art of the Holocaust. The Rutledge Press,New York,New York,1981.
Henry Friedler, Historical Introduction. [12-19]
Janet Blatter,Art From the Whirlwind. [20-35]
Sybil Milton,The Legacy of Holocaust Art. [36-43]
Heim Genizi,America’s Fair Share: The Admission and Resettlement of Displaced Persons, 1945-1950.
Wayne State University Press,Detroit,MI.1993.
The DP Problem in Germany and Austria, 1945–1947. [16-27]
UNRRA and the Voluntary Agencies in Germany, 1945–1947.[28-36]
The Displaced Persons Commission and the Resettlement of DPs 1948–1950.[114-127]
Israel Gutman,editor in chief, Encyclopedia of the Holocaust. Macmillan Publishing Company,New York.
Volume I,II,III,IV.1990.
“Jewish Displaced Persons.” [377-389]
“France: General Survey; –The Jews and the Holocaust; –Jewish Responses to Persecution.” [505-519]
“Joint Distribution Committee (JDC).” [752-755]
“Refugees, 1939-1945.” [1234-1240]
SELECTED BIBLIOGRAPHY

Jeremy Aynsley,Graphic Design in Germany 1890-1945. University of
California Press,2000.
Robert E.Conot,Justice at Nuremberg.Gustan Muhler Gilbert,1975.1983.
Jeffrey Herf,The Jewish Enemy, Nazi Propaganda During World War II and
the Holocaust.Belknap Press of Harvard University Press,2006.
David Welch,The Third Reich: Politics and Propaganda. Routledge,London,
1993.
Steven Heller,The Swastika: Symbol Beyond Redemption? Allsworth Press,
2000.
Richard Hollis,Graphic Design, A Concise History. Thames and Hudson,
1994.
Roxane Jubert, Typography and Graphic Design. Flammarion, Paris,2006.
Steven Luckert,The Art and Politics of Arthur Szyk.USHMM,Washington
D.C.2002.
Philip B.Meggs,A History of Graphic Design. Second Edition.Van Nostrand
Reinhold,1992.
Hidden History of the Kovno Ghetto,Exhibition Catalogue.United States
Holocaust Memorial,Washington D.C.,1997.
Daring to Resist, Jewish Defiance in the Holocaust. Exhibition Catalogue,
Museum of Jewish Heritage–A Living Memorial to the Holocaust.New
York,NY,2007.
Barbie Zelizer,Edited by.Visual Culture and the Holocaust.Rutgers
University Press,2001.
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