1.
Overview of SLA Principles and Theories
Principle Proponents Period
Introduced
Key Features Implications for the Classroom
To learn a
language is to
learn a behavior
B.F. Skinner
Paul Pimsleur
Before
1970s
Habit formation through:
• Memorization
• Repetition
• Copying
• Practice
• Focus on producing the sound,
rhythm and flow of L2
• Audio Lingual Method (e.g., recitation
and repetition of scripted dialogues;
Jazz Chants)
• Memorization drills
Acquiring a second
language is like
acquiring a first
language
IF
certain conditions
are met
Steven Krashen
Tracy Terrell
James Asher
Heidi Dulay
Marina Burt
1980s • Natural Order Hypothesis:
Learners acquire language features in
roughly the same order, regardless of the
order in which they’re taught.
• Comprehensible Input:
Language that can be understood by
learners despite them not understanding
all the words and structures (like
“motherese”). To progress, language input
needs to be just beyond the learner’s level
(I + 1).
• Learning vs. Acquisition:
Learning = Thinking about the language;
focused on learning the rules and patterns
of the language.
Acquisition = Understanding and using L2
• Monitor Hypothesis:
Learned language acts as a “monitor.”
Checking and correcting language output.
Overuse can result in stilted, unnatural
speech.
• Affective Filter:
Learners’ emotional state as they acquire
language; Confidence, motivation, and
anxiety levels impact a student’s ability to
comprehend input. [Comprehensible Input
+ Low Affective Filter = Necessary
conditions for SLA]
• Learners go through the same natural
order of acquisition of particular
features (e.g. verb endings,
questions), but not all learners in
your classroom will be at the same
stage or advance at the same rate.
• Instructor language is at or just above
learner comprehension level.
• To keep the monitor and affective
filter low, the instructor and
classmates are supportive, learners
are relaxed and the curriculum is
motivating (e.g., learner-centered;
goal-oriented, uses formative
assessments).
• Emphasis is on language input, not
learners’ output (e.g., Silent
Sustained Reading; Total Physical
Response) especially for beginners
• Use of authentic materials and
authentic contexts, scaffolded as
needed.
• The Natural approach; Immersion
model.

2.
Principle Proponents Period
Introduced
Key Features Implications for the Classroom
Language learners
go through stages
of language
development
Steven Krashen
Tracy Terrell
Judy Haynes
Harald Clahsen
1980s Five Stages:
1. Pre-production/Silent, 0-6 months
2. Early production, 6 months -1 year
3. Speech emergent, 1-3 years
4. Intermediate fluency, 3-5 years
5. Advanced fluency, 5-7 years
• Pre-production: Provide activities
geared to tap learner knowledge, but
do not force production (speaking).
Pointing, labeling, and drawing
activities work well. (TPR)
• Early production: Ask easy yes/no,
either/or questions or simple who,
what, where, when questions.
Learners can demonstrate their
comprehension of material by giving
short responses.
• Speech emergence: Ask students at
this stage how and why questions
that elicit short responses.
• Nearly fluent: Ask open-ended
questions that allow students to
create more complicated responses
and to use complex sentences.
• Advanced fluency: Offer challenging
activities to expand the student's
vocabulary knowledge. Provide
support in fine-tuning oral and
written language skills.
Language learners
develop an
Interlanguage in
the process of
their language
development
Larry Selinker
Richard Schmidt
1970s
• Interlanguage is the type of language
produced by second-language learners who
are in the process of learning a language. It
preserves some features of the first
language and can also include some
overgeneralized second language writing
and speaking rules.
• It can “fossilize” or cease to develop at any
stage. Fossilization in language acquisition
may occur when students feel their
communicative needs are being met.
• Correct errors judiciously ( e.g.,
accept that they are part of language
development, while also noticing
patterns that could lead to
fossilization).
• To help prevent fossilization and
gradually increase accuracy, expose
learners to ample authentic,
unscripted language through task-
based / communicative activities.

3.
Principle Proponents Period
Introduced
Key Features Implications for the Classroom
Language learning
takes place when
the learner
encounters a gap
in his or her
linguistic
knowledge of the
second language
and repairs it.
Merill Swain 1990s • Pushed output:
Language learners need not only
comprehensible input in a relaxed,
supportive classroom (per Krashen), they
also need communicative tasks that push
them to use language and make
themselves understood.
• Noticing - Hypothesis testing -
Internalizing:
Through language production, students
identify patterns, try out different
strategies until they get it right, then
internalize the elements of the language
they are learning in the classroom.
• Design instruction to include ample
opportunities for students to talk and
write in the L2.
• Include attention to both
communication and accuracy, i.e.,
second language acquisition as well
as learning the rules and patterns of
language (language awareness)
• Fossilized errors may never be
noticed by the learner unless the s/he
sees a reason to (e.g. if it is seriously
hindering communication or if they
are pointed out). Teachers can help
learners notice their fossilized errors
by, for example, recording them
speaking, or asking them to keep a
record of their written errors as part
of a language portfolio.
The development
of language
proficiency is
promoted by face-
to-face interaction
and authentic
communication.
Michael Long
Susan Gass
1990s • The Interaction Hypothesis:
The effectiveness of comprehensible input
is greatly increased when learners have to
negotiate for meaning.
A combination of the Input and Output
Hypotheses, the Interaction Hypothesis
emphasizes the importance of:
• Negotiation of Meaning: When speakers
encounter a communication problem
(mispronunciation, vocabulary or grammar
misusage, etc.), they naturally negotiate or
provide feedback to one another to modify
their speech and make it more
comprehensible.
• Modified Language: We modify our
language depending upon who we are
talking to, the topic, and the context. We
simplify, repeat, clarify, and rephrase.
• Provide students with many
opportunities for authentic
interaction to encourage them to
work through their communication
difficulties, and receive feedback on
modifications required to make
language comprehensible.
• Provide direct instruction on
communicative and language
acquisition strategies.
• Assign out-of-class communicative
activities.

4.
Principle Proponents Period
Introduced
Key Features Implications for the Classroom
The rate of second
language
acquisition
depends on the
kind of language
and context in
which it is used.
Jim Cummins 1980s • BICS and CALP (Basic Interpersonal
Communication Skill and Cognitive
Academic Language Proficiency) take 1-2
years and 5-7 years, respectively, to
acquire.
• Provide opportunities for learners to
develop academic English skills,
critical thinking, and problem solving
in addition to English conversational
skills.
• For example, teach Tier 2 vocabulary,
use complex texts, work towards
CCRSAE standards.
Second language
acquisition is
linked to the
extent to which
learners orient
themselves to the
culture of the
target language.
John Schumann
Geert Hofstede
Sharan Merriam
1978-
Present
• Second language acquisition is directly
linked to the acculturation process, which
is influenced by social and psychological
factors.
• Acculturation factors:
 Integration pattern
 Enclosure
 Size
 Cohesiveness
 Cultural congruence
 Social dominance
 Attitude
 Intended length of residence
• Develop an understanding of the
factors that influence acculturation
• Establish a climate of respect in the
classroom that acknowledges and
affirms cultural differences.
• Teaching the target culture enhances
acquisition of the target language.
Individual learner
characteristics
have an impact on
the rate and
proficiency level of
second language
acquisition, some
more than others.
Po-Sen Liao
Rod Ellis
Zolten Dornyei
1990s • Individual learner characteristics include:
 Age
 Motivation
 Attitude
 Aptitude
 Cognitive Style
 Language Learning Style
 Personality
• Use information about individual
students to address and differentiate
their instruction.
**Created by the SABES ESOL Curriculum and Instruction PD Center, 2017, updated 9/2018