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1. RESEARCH
Ma. Martha Manette A. Madrid, Ed.D.
Reviewer, Licensure Examination
for Teachers(LET)
Panpacific University North Philippines
Urdaneta City, Pangasinan, Philippines
2. DIMENSIONS OF RESEARCH
• Conceptual Dimension: Why we do research?
• Research is a process that attempts to seek
solutions or answers to problems.
• Substantive Dimension: What determines the
contents of research?
• Research is a process of applying the scientific
method.
• Operational Dimension: How we arrive at
answers or solutions?
• Research is a process of testing hypotheses or
verifying theories.
3. LOGICAL REASONING
-is a problem-solving method combines
experience, intellectual faculties, and
formal systems of thought.
• Inductive reasoning is the process of
developing generalizations from specific
observations.
• Deductive reasoning is the process of
developing specific predictions from
general principles.
4. PARADIGMS
• is a word view, a general perspective on
the complexities of the real world. It is
often characterized in terms of the ways
in which they respond to basic
philosophical questions: Ontologic,
Epistemologic, Axiologic, and Methologic.
5. Two Paradigms
1. Positivist paradigm is
sometimes referred to as logical
positivism.
• Within the Positivist Paradigm, research
activity is directed at understanding the
underlying causes of natural phenomena.
6. Two Paradigms
2. Naturalistic paradigm is
sometimes referred to as the
constructionist paradigm.
• Naturalistic paradigm assumes that
knowledge is maximized when the distance
between the inquirer and the participants
in the study is minimized.
7. MAJOR ASSUMPTIONS OF THE
POSITIVIST AND
NATURALISTIC PARADIGMS
• ASSUMPTIONS
• Ontologic: What is the nature of reality?
• Epistemilogic: How is the inquirer related to those being
researched?
• Axiologic: What is the role of values in the inquiry?
• Methodologic: How is evidence best obtained?
8. MAJOR ASSUMPTIONS OF THE
POSITIVIST AND
NATURALISTIC PARADIGMS
• POSITIVIST PARADIGM
• Reality exists; there is a real world driven by real natural
causes
• The inquirer is independent from those being researched;
findings are not influenced by the researcher
• Values and biases are to be held in check, objectivity is
sought
• Deductive processes
9. MAJOR ASSUMPTIONS OF THE
POSITIVIST AND
NATURALISTIC PARADIGMS
• NAURALISTIC PARADIGM
• Reality is multiple and subjective, mentally constructed by
individuals
• The inquirer interacts with those being researched;
findings are the creation of the interactive process
• Subjectivity and values are inevitable and desirable
• Inductive processes
10. TYPES OF RESEARCH METHODS
Research Methods are techniques
researchers use to structure a study and
to gather and analyze information relevant
to the research question.
• Quantitative research, which is most
closely allied with positivist tradition.
• Qualitative research, which is most often
associated with naturalistic inquiry.
11. THE SCIENTIFIC METHOD
AND QUANTITATIVE
RESEARCH
Positivist scientific method refers to a
general set of orderly, disciplined
procedures used to acquire information.
Quantitative researchers use:
• Deductive reasoning to generate predictions that are
tested in the real world.
• Mechanisms designed to control the study. Control
involves imposing conditions on the research situation
so that biases are minimized and precision and validity
are maximized.
12. THE SCIENTIFIC METHOD
AND QUANTITATIVE
RESEARCH
Quantitative researchers gather:
• Empirical Evidence is evidence that is
rooted in objective reality and gathered
directly or indirectly through the senses.
13. NATURALISTIC METHODS AND
QUALITATIVE RESEARCH
Naturalistic methods of inquiry attempt to
deal with the issue of human complexity by
exploring it directly.
Researchers in naturalistic tradition:
• Emphasize the complexity of humans, their ability to shape and create their own
experiences, and the idea that truth is a composite of realities.
• Places a heavy emphasis on understanding the human experience as it is lived,
usually through a careful collection and analysis of qualitative materials that
are narrative and subjective.
• Tend to emphasize the dynamic, holistic and individual aspects of human
experience and attempt capture those aspects in their entirety, within the
context of those who are experiencing them.
• Takes place usually in the field (i.e., naturalistic settings), often over an
extended period of time.
14. NATURALISTIC METHODS AND
QUALITATIVE RESEARCH
• Collection of information and its analysis typically progress
concurrently; as researchers sift through information,
insights are gained, new questions emerge, and further
evidence is sought to amplify or confirm the insights.
Through an inductive process, researchers integrate
information to develop a theory or description that helps
explicate the phenomenon under observation.
• Yields rich, in-depth information that has the potential to
elucidate varied dimensions of a complicated phenomenon.
The findings are typically grounded in the real-life
experiences of people with first-hand experience knowledge
of a phenomenon.
15. PURPOSES OF RESEARCH
• Basic Research is undertaken to extend
the base of knowledge in a discipline, or to
formulate or refine a theory. It is
appropriate for discovering general
principles of human behavior.
• Example: Cadena (2006) studied the needs
and functioning of persons with
schizophrenia living in an assisted living
facility in relation to the resident’s
characteristics. The findings had
implications for practice, but the research
itself did not attempt to solve a particular
16. PURPOSES OF RESEARCH
• Applied Research focuses on finding
solutions to existing problems. It is
designed to indicate how these principles
can be used to solve problems.
• Example: A study to determine whether
any of three alternative methods in
teaching reading could improve the reading
performance of the pupils.
17. SPECIAL PURPOSES OF
RESEARCH
• Identification
• Qualitative researchers sometimes study
phenomena about which is little is known.
Phenomena that has been inadequately
defined or conceptualized.
• Example: Study of experiences of
students with autism who had undergone
an intervention program. They identified a
basic process of behavior modification.
18. SPECIAL PURPOSES OF RESEARCH
1. Identification
• Qualitative researchers sometimes study
phenomena about which is little is known.
Phenomena that has been inadequately defined
or conceptualized.
• Example: Study of experiences of students
with autism who had undergone an intervention
program. They identified a basic process of
behavior modification.
• Quantitative researchers begin with a
phenomenon that has been previously studied or
defined-sometimes in a qualitative study.
19. SPECIAL PURPOSES OF RESEARCH
2. Description
• Quantitative researchers focus on the prevalence,
incidence, size and measurable attributes of
phenomena.
• Example: A study on the prevalence and
characteristics of childhood sexual abuse among
men in the Philippines.
• Qualitative researchers describe the dimensions,
variations, and importance of phenomena.
• Example: A study to describe the factors affecting
the reading comprehension of Grade 5 pupils and to
describe teacher’s methods to improve their
reading comprehension.
20. SPECIAL PURPOSES OF RESEARCH
3. Exploration
• Quantitative researchers begin with phenomenon
of interest.
• Example: A study that explored whether review
classes for the Education graduates contribute to
their preparedness in taking the board exam.
• Quantitative researchers
• Example: Bruce and Davies (2005) explored the
experience of mindfulness among hospice
caregivers who regularly practiced mindfulness
meditation at a hospice setting in which Western
palliative care and Zen Buddhist philosophy were
integrated.
21. SPECIAL PURPOSES OF RESEARCH
4. Explanation –the goals of explanatory research are to understand the
underpinnings of specific natural phenomena and to explain systematic
relationships among phenomena. It is often linked to theories, which
represent a method of organizing and integrating idea about phenomena
and their relationship.
• In quantitative research, theories or prior findings are used deductively
to generate hypothesized explanations that are then tested empirically.
• Example: A study that tested a theoretical model to explain physical
activity among older adults who survived a stroke. The model purported to
explain exercise behavior on the basis of theoretically relevant concepts
such as self-efficacy and outcome expectations.
• In qualitative studies, researchers may search for explanations about how
or why a phenomenon exists or what a phenomenon means as a basis for
developing a theory that is grounded in rich, in-depth, experiential
evidence.
• Example: A study conducted to develop an explanatory framework for
understanding ADHD students. Interviews with students were used to
explain this disorder in the context of family, community and society.
22. SPECIAL PURPOSES OF RESEARCH
5.Prediction and Control
• In quantitative, it is frequently possible to make predictions
and to control phenomena based on research findings.
• Example: A study conducted to identify the stressors of
Educators Education that affects their academic
performance.
23. FUNDAMENTAL RESEARCH TERMS AND
CONDITIONS IN QUANTITATIVE AND
QUALITTAIVE RESEARCH
• Subjects or Study Participants – In quantitative
study, this refers to the people being studied. They
provide information by answering questions – e.g. by
filling out a questionnaire – may be called respondents.
• Informants, Key Informants or Study Participants –
In qualitative study, they are the individuals
cooperating in the study that play an active role
rather than a passive role.
• Note: In both, study participants comprise the
sample.
• Researcher or Investigator – the person who
conducts the research.
24. FUNDAMENTAL RESEARCH TERMS AND
CONDITIONS IN QUANTITATIVE AND
QUALITTAIVE RESEARCH
• Settings – specific places where information is
gathered.
• Naturalistic settings - in the field, such as in people’s
homes or places of work. Qualitative researchers are
likely to engage in fieldwork in natural settings.
• Laboratory settings- studies are done in highly
controlled places.
• Concepts – Research involves abstractions, for
example pain, quality of life and resilience are all
abstractions of particular aspects of human behavior
and characteristics. These are called concepts.
25. FUNDAMENTAL RESEARCH TERMS AND
CONDITIONS IN QUANTITATIVE AND
QUALITTAIVE RESEARCH
• Phenomena- In qualitative studies, these are abstractions also called
concepts.
• Construct – Abstractions that are deliberately and systematically invented
(or constructed) by researchers for a specific purpose.
• Theory – a systematic, abstract explanation of some aspect of reality.
– In a qualitative study, researchers often start with a theory,
framework, or conceptual model. On the basis of theory, researchers
make predictions about how phenomena will behave in the real world if
the theory is true. The specific predictions deduced from the theory
are tested through research, and the results are used to support,
reject, or modify the theory.
– In qualitative research, theories may be used in various ways.
Sometimes conceptual or sensitizing frameworks –derived from
various qualitative research traditions.
26. FUNDAMENTAL RESEARCH TERMS AND
CONDITIONS IN QUANTITATIVE AND
QUALITTAIVE RESEARCH
• Variables – In qualitative studies, concepts are usually called
variables. Any quality of a person, group or situation that varies
or takes on different values-typically numerical values.
– Heterogeneous – When an attribute is extremely varied in
the group under investigation.
– Homogeneous - If the amount of variability is limited.
– Attribute variables – variables that are often inherent
characteristics of research subjects – such as age.
– Created variables – Variables that the researcher creates
– such as effectiveness of Audio-Lingual as opposed to
Lecture-Discussion.
27. FUNDAMENTAL RESEARCH TERMS AND
CONDITIONS IN QUANTITATIVE AND
QUALITTAIVE RESEARCH
• Continuous variables – Variables that have continuum and, in
theory, can assume an infinite number of values between two
points.
• Discrete variables – Variables that have a definite number of
values between any two points.
• Categorical variables – Variables that take on a handful of
discrete non-quantitative values. When they take on only two
values, they are called dichotomous variables, for example – male
and female.
• Independent variables – the presumed cause.
• Dependent variables – the presumed effect.
28. FUNDAMENTAL RESEARCH TERMS AND
CONDITIONS IN QUANTITATIVE AND
QUALITTAIVE RESEARCH
• Conceptual Definition – presents the abstract or theoretical
meaning of the concepts being studied.
• Operational Definition – specifies the operations that researchers
must perform to collect and measure the required information.
• Research Data – Pieces of information obtained during a study.
• Quantitative data - information in numeric form.
• Qualitataive data – information in narrative description
• Relationship – a bond or a connection between phenomena.
– Cause-and-effect (or casual) relationship – when the
independent variables causes of affects the dependent
variables.
– Functional or Associative relationship – variables are related
in a noncausal way.
29. TRADITION IN RESEARCH
1. QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH:
EXPERIMENTAL AND NONEXPERIMENTAL
• Experimental Research – researchers actively
introduce an intervention or treatment. In
medical and epidemiologic research, it is
called controlled trial or clinical trial. It is
designed to test causal relationships.
• Nonexperimental Research – researchers are
bystanders-they collect data without
introducing treatments or making changes. A
nonexperimental inquiry is called an
observation study.
30. TRADITION IN RESEARCH
• QUALITATIVE RESEARCH:
DISCIPLINARY TRADITIONS
• Grounded Theory tradition – which has its roots in
sociology, seeks to describe and understand the key
social psychological and structural processes that occur
in a social setting. Developed by Glaser and Strauss
(1967).
• Phenomenology – rooted in a philosophical tradition
developed by Husserl and Heidegger, is concerned with
the lived experiences of humans.
• Ethnography – is the primary research tradition within
anthropology, and provides a framework for studying the
patterns, life ways, and experiences of a cultural group in
a holistic fashion.
31. MAJOR STEPS IN A
QUANTITATIVE STUDY
1. Conceptual phase
a. Formulating and delimiting the problem
• Research problem – a perplexing or
enigmatic situation that a researcher
wants to address through disciplined
inquiry.
• Research Question – is the specific query
researchers want to answer in addressing
the research problem.
32. MAJOR STEPS IN A
QUANTITATIVE STUDY
• Moderator variables – research questions that
affect the strength or direction of a relationship
between the independent and dependent
variables.
• Mediating variables – research problems that
intervene between the independent and
dependent variables and help explain why the
relationship exists.
• Problem Statement –articulates the nature,
context and significance of a problem to be
studied.
33. MAJOR STEPS IN A
QUANTITATIVE STUDY
b. Reviewing the related literature
• Literature Review – provides a foundation on
which to base new evidence and usually is
conducted well before any data are collected.
• Primary source – the original description of a
study prepared by the researcher who conducted
it.
• Secondary source – is a description of the study
by a person unconnected with it.
c. Undertaking Fieldwork
2.
34. MAJOR STEPS IN A
QUANTITATIVE STUDY
d. Defining the framework and developing conceptual
definitions
• Framework – the overall conceptual underpinnings
of a study.
• Theoretical framework – a framework of a study
that is based on a theory.
• Conceptual framework – a conceptual
underpinning of a study, including an overall
rationale and conceptual definitions of key
concepts. Conceptual Models or Conceptual
Schemes are use interchangeably.
35. MAJOR STEPS IN A
QUANTITATIVE STUDY
e. Formulating hypothesis
• Hypothesis - a statement of the researcher’s
expectations about relationships between study
variables. In other words, are predictions of
expected outcomes; they state the relationship
researchers expect to find as a result of the
study.
• Research hypothesis – predicts the existence of
relationships
• Null hypothesis – express the absence of a
relationship.
36. MAJOR STEPS IN A
QUANTITATIVE STUDY
2. The design and planning phase
a. Selecting a research design
• Research design – the overall plan for obtaining
answers to the questions being studied and for
handling some of the difficulties encountered
during the research process.
b. Developing protocols for the intervention
c. Identifying the population
• Population – all the individuals or objects with
common, defining characteristics.
37. MAJOR STEPS IN A
QUANTITATIVE STUDY
3. The empirical phase
a. Collecting the data
b. Preparing the data for analysis
• Coding – process of translating verbal
data into numeric form.
38. MAJOR STEPS IN A
QUANTITATIVE STUDY
4. The analytic phase
a. Analyzing the data
• Statistical analyses - cover a broad range
of techniques, from simple procedures
that we all use regularly to complex and
sophisticated methods.
b. Interpreting the results
• Interpretation - the process of making
sense of study results and of examining
their implications.
39. MAJOR STEPS IN A
QUANTITATIVE STUDY
5. The dissemination phase
a. Communicating the findings
b. Utilizing the findings in practice
40. ACTIVITIES IN A
QUALITATIVE STUDY
• Conceptualizing and Planning a
Qualitative Study
• Developing an Overall Approach
• Conducting the Qualitative Study
• Disseminating Qualitative Findings
41. JOURNAL ARTICLES
• Summarizes the content, design and
results of a study, primary method of
disseminating research evidence.
• Consists of abstract (brief description of
the study or brief hypnosis of the study)
and four major sections(introduction,
methods, results and discussion.
42. JOURNAL ARTICLES
– Introduction – explanation of the study
problem and its context.
– Methods – strategies used to address
the problem.
– Results – study findings.
– Discussion – interpretation of findings
43. UNDERTAKING RESEARCH
FOR SPECIFIC PURPOSES
• Mixed research – involves the triangulation of qualitative
and quantitative data in a single project.
• Evaluation Research – assesses the effectiveness of a
program, policy or procedures to assist decision makers in
choosing a course of action.
• Process or Implementation analyses –describe the process
by which a program gets implemented and how it functions
in practice.
• Outcome Analyses – describe the status of some condition
after the introduction of an intervention.
• Impact Analyses – test whether an intervention caused any
net impacts relative to the counter-factual.
44. UNDERTAKING RESEARCH
FOR SPECIFIC PURPOSES
• Survey research – examines people’s characteristics,
behaviors, and intentions by asking them to answer
questions.
– Personal interview – interviewers meet the respondents
face-to-face.
– Telephone interview -
– Questionnaires – are self-administered (i.e. questions
are read by respondents, who then give written
responses.
• Secondary analyses – refers to studies in which
researchers analyze previously collected data –either
qualitative or quantitative.
45. UNDERTAKING RESEARCH
FOR SPECIFIC PURPOSES
• Needs assessment – are studies to document the needs
of a group or community.
• Delphi Survey – is a method of problem solving in which
several rounds of questionnaires are mailed to a panel of
experts.
• Replication studies – include identical replications (exact
duplication of methods of an earlier study in a new
study).
• Methodologic research – the investigator is concerned
with the development, validation and assessment of
methodologic tools or strategies.