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A “Lessons-To-Go” study
by Mark S. Pavlin
Topics of critical
importance to the
history of Christianity
Challenges and Controversies
in the course of Christian history
Challenges and Controversies
in the course of Christian history
Part 1
Formulation and Reformation
The church's one foundation is Jesus Christ her Lord;
she is his new creation by water and the word....
Elect from every nation yet one o'er all the earth,
her charter of salvation: one Lord, one faith, one birth;
one holy Name she blesses, partakes one holy food,
and to one hope she presses, with every grace endued.
Though with a scornful wonder men see her sore oppressed,
by schisms rent asunder, by heresies distressed...
Amid toil and tribulation and tumult of her war,
she waits the consummation of peace for evermore
until with the vision glorious her longing eyes are blest,
and the great church victorious shall be the church at rest.
It is a plaintive cry for an end to the bitter arguing, fighting
and dividing that marred the history of Christianity and that
by the time of the poem’s composition in the 1860’s was
long evident to people everywhere.
“The Church's One Foundation” was composed by English
poet Samuel John Stone, a priest in the Church of England, as
a response to division in the Church of South Africa caused
by teachings of the Bishop of Natal, John W. Colenso.
Why, if the Church has one Foundation, one Lord, etc., are
there so many different kinds (denominations)? So many
separate “parts”? What were the controversies that led to
these schisms? Were they a recent development? Did they
occur in the early history of the Church? Can they re-unite?
Lesson 1: Getting Belief Right
Challenges and Controversies
in the course of Christian history
Part 1: Formulation and Reformation
“Her Charter of Salvation”
What Christians believe
Many branches of Christianity
recite a statement of the core
beliefs they hold in common
entitled “The Nicene Creed.”
This lesson is about its form-
ulation amidst turbulent times
of persecution, war and con-
troversy in the Roman Empire
of the 4th century.
Many Christians contend that four
Gospel accounts of the life, death
and teachings of a Jewish man of
the 1st century AD, named Jesus of
Nazareth, are primary canonical
(“ruling” or “normative”) sources
of their Church’s beliefs (dogma).
Gospels and Epistles rule
The Gospels are, in
fact, the only sources
of any information
about the life of Jesus.*
*Brief mention of Jesus in the voluminous writings of the Jewish-
Roman historian Josephus is a possible (and controversial) exception.
Gospels and Epistles rule
Epistles (letters) written after his
death by his disciple, Paul of
Tarsus and others* that expound
on the spiritual meaning of the
events in the life of Jesus are a
second source of the “right”
Christian beliefs and practices.
*Attributed to Paul or the Apostles Peter, James, or John but now
generally recognized to be pseudonymous works of later writers.
The New Testament (NT) accounts tell us that Jesus was....
 Born to parents from a rural Judean village (our best guess ca. 4 BC), a
distant descendant of King David; by upbringing an devout Jew
 By training, a craftsman; by avocation a holy man with remarkable
ability to heal diseases, even rebuke evil spirits and raise the dead
 A preacher of repentance for sin yet, unlike other rabbis, teaching
as one with authority, but not a writer (he was probably illiterate)
 An apocalyptic prophet referring to himself as “Son of Man” (as in
the OT Book of Daniel), announcing the restoration of Israel by God
 Not an organizer of a new sect of Judaism or religious order
 Executed about the year AD 30 by Roman officials but then (a core
proclamation of the NT) brought to life again by God.
Since Jesus wasn’t the founder of the Christian religion,
who was? Who formulated its beliefs and practices?
Who was Jesus?
What did early believers believe?
Jesus taught, and his followers
held with conviction, that there is
one and only one God*, as pro-
claimed by generations of their
Jewish forbearers:
“... you shall have no other gods
before me” - Ex. 20:3
“Worship the Lord your God
and serve Him only.” - Mt.4:10
“Love the Lord your God with all your heart
and with all your soul and with all your
strength and with all your mind’ - Lk. 10:27
*The term “trinity” does not appear in Scripture or in any Christian
texts until ca. AD 212 in works by the Christian writer, Tertullian
 ... Jesus lived as many did in that day, experiencing work,
poverty, joy and pain as did all people. He died, shame-
fully so, executed by the Roman authorities at the request
of the Jewish leaders.
 ... But God raised him to life again, thus “defeating death”
and winning for all God’s favor (grace), for all time. “Who-
ever believes in him will not be put to shame.” (1Pe. 2:6)
 ... God is still with us, present as His Holy Spirit, instilling faith in
people, guiding their thoughts and strengthening them for action
 ... One such action was (according to one account, Mt. 28:19) to
“...go and make disciples... baptizing them in the name of the
Father and of the Son and of the Holy Spirit…”
What did early believers believe?
His earliest followers began proclaiming something more with equal
passion and conviction, that the man Jesus was the Jewish “Messiah”
(Greek “Christ”) who was now redeemer and Lord; that...
The Book of Acts tells of the earliest days of
the followers of Jesus, not yet an organization
that has diverged from Judaism, in which Paul
of Tarsus is the most influential figure.
Acts adds detail
While the Gospels tell of the activities of Jesus
and his training of 12 special disciples (apostles)
these accounts, written years after the events,
only hint at setting up an organization with new
leaders, rules, rituals, and, critically, beliefs.
What is told in Acts about the spread of “The
Way” is the subject of a 3-part “Lessons-to-Go”
study, “The Missionary Journeys of St. Paul.”
But Acts aside, historical information is scanty about how the new
movement, later a religion named “Christianity”, got organized.
Shrouded in the mists of time
There is uncertainty about the course of Christianity in its earliest
period because even the earliest extant “witnesses“ were written well
after the events, are often legendary in tone, and were not “historical”
in the modern sense. Instead they were “kerygma” (proclamation) of
“Good News” about Jesus and his apocalyptic (coming soon) Kingdom.
Scholars since the 19th century, using what is labelled the “historical-
critical” method, have analyzed the NT thoroughly to reconstruct
events that led to the divergence of Christianity from Judaism.
In aid of this effort are sources such as non-canonical Gospels and
Acts, the writings of the Jewish-Roman historian Josephus, the writings
of the so-called Apostolic Fathers of the early 2nd century, and early
text fragments by others quoted by Eusebius in his Church History.
The new faith separated from Judaism as teachings about Jesus
became much more important than the teaching of Jesus.
Shrouded in the mists of time
There is uncertainty about the course of Christianity in its earliest
period because even the earliest extant “witnesses“ were written well
after the events, are often legendary in tone, and were not “historical”
in the modern sense. Instead they were “kerygma” (proclamation) of
“Good News” about Jesus and his apocalyptic (coming soon) Kingdom.
Scholars since the 19th century, using what is labelled the “historical-
critical” method, have analyzed the NT thoroughly to reconstruct
events that led to the divergence of Christianity from Judaism.
In aid of this effort are sources such as non-canonical Gospels and
Acts, the writings of the Jewish-Roman historian Josephus, the writings
of the so-called Apostolic Fathers of the early 2nd century, and early
text fragments by others quoted by Eusebius in his Church History.
The new faith separated from Judaism as teachings about Jesus
became much more important than the teaching of Jesus.
A diversity of teachings
Adoptionism Apollinarianism
Arianism Donatism
Ebionites Gnosticism
Marcionism Modalism
Monophysitism Montanism
Nestorianism Novatianism
Pelagianism Sabellianism
Subordinationism Valentinianism
Early spread of “The Way” was done in an “ad hoc:
fashion, with no organization, no central guidance.
In consequence, many divergent teachings about
Jesus sprang up in the first 300 years after Christ
(whose study deserves an entire course).
Suffice it to name here a few of the major variant
“pre-orthodox” or heterodox teachings:
What about persecution?
For ca. 300 yrs after Jesus Christianity was not illegal in the Roman Empire;
people were not jailed for being Christians, the impression given by a few
NT passages and exaggerated sermons and stories about the early Church;
it did, however, inhibit the free exchange of theological speculation.
What was illegal was refusal to worship the god the government said
you must worship, usually the current Emperor. The penalty for refus-
ing to do so was often execution.
For the most part, persecutions
were sporadic, local, isolated,
and brief. Christianity spread as
neighbors shared their new
faith and acted on it, with
mutual assistance, aid for the
poor, care for the sick, and
burial for the dead.
Reconstruction of the Pantheon, Rome
By the year AD 300, the new faith was widespread in the Empire. Its
adherents, perhaps 5% of the population, were numerous enough to
cause concern among local officials suspicious of secret assemblies and
by military officers upset by the refusal of some to serve in the army.
Starting in AD 303,
Emperor Diocletian, egged
on by his “vice-emperor”,
Galerius, carried out the
most cruel and intense
persecution the faith was
ever to endure. In Gaul
and Iberia, however, the
other vice-emperor,
Constantius, and his son
Constantine, did not go
along, opposing Galerius.
One last great persecution
The terror ended abruptly on April 30, 311 when Emperor Galerius,
suffering from a painful illness, issued an “edict of toleration” for all
Christians in return for their prayers for his health.
He died 5 days later.
Providence intervenes in history?
Some Christians said God struck him down
for his many sins.
Emperor-wanna-be’s (Licinius, Maximinus
Dias, Maxentius, and Constantine, right)
took control of various parts of the Empire
and then fought for control of the whole.
Constantine struck first, aggressively
launching his army from Gaul across the
Alps and toward Rome against
Maxentius....
He later told a strange and wonderful story recorded by his admirer,
the church historian, Bishop Eusebius of Caesarea; claiming...
... that the God of the Christians gave his army victory in the critical
Battle of the Milvian Bridge, telling him in a vision to put a certain
symbol on his banners, and assuring him that he would
“In this sign conquer”, referring to the chi-rho symbol:
Providence intervenes in history?
He then made peace with Licinius who in turn fought
Maximinius Dias... by the year 322, Constantine was
sole ruler over the entire Empire.
And so he granted Christians favors, built churches
and elevated Christian bishops to status in court.
By the end of the century Christianity was not
just favored in the Roman Empire, it was the
official religion. Paganism was outlawed!
The divergent beliefs of and different rituals practiced by various
groups claiming to be followers of Jesus had never been resolved
Judaisers insisted that Gentile converts must obey Jewish Torah laws
(recall that the Apostle Paul had railed against them)
Followers of Marcion held that there were two Gods, repudiating the
evil God of the OT and worshipping the loving God of the NT
Gnostics claimed to have secret knowledge of salvation that Jesus
taught to only a few hand-picked disciples
Led by Bishop Donatus of Carthage, Christians who were steadfast in
the face of persecution resented and opposed re-instatement of any
who renounced their faith or fled to avoid torture or death.
But as Constantine consolidated his power, one theological question
above all others threatened to tear the Church apart.
Yet all is not well in Christendom
Is Jesus truly God?
Was Jesus Christ a really holy man God
“promoted” to a position of power?
Or maybe he was God in a human
disguise. Or was he a kind of super-
angel or a lesser god?
Or was he GOD? This last position was
taken by many devout people but was
hard (theologically) to defend.
If there were two Gods, were they
equal in status and power? Or was
Jesus God but a “lesser” God who
served the Father as do angels?
What was the correct belief, the
orthodox doctrine? (and who decides?)
Not heresy - yet
 At that time, no one knew which position was “right” – what we
now call orthodox was then “proto-orthodox”
 In fact, there was no “overall” Church authority to declare what
was “right” – no Supreme Leader or Supreme Court
 Each Bishop was the authority over his own “see”*
 Many could not reconcile theological disagreement/dispute with
the “guidance into all truth” by the Holy Spirit
 The Church was in the throes of a potential schism over this issue
– with consequences for the stability of the Empire itself.
If an issue arose among, say, United Methodists today, how
can that issue resolved? Who is “the authority”?
*The word see is from the Latin sedes, which refers to
the seat of a bishop, the symbol of the his authority.
Some Scripture passages suggest that Jesus was a
human being of exceptional faith and holiness
who God used in a mighty way for His purposes.
Someone like Abraham, Moses, Ruth, David,
Isaiah, Ester, Deborah, and John the Baptist.
But Jesus was so exceptional that God “adopted”
him as His son at his baptism. After his selfless
death, God rewarded him with life and installed
him at His Right Hand to reign with Him. Now we,
too, can be adopted as children of God.
Was Jesus adopted?
“You are my son whom I love, with you I
am well pleased” - Lk. 3:22
“In love {God} predestined us for adoption to
Himself as His sons through Jesus Christ...”
Modalism “solves” the paradox of 1 God, 3 Persons in a common
sense way. It declares that there is one God but when people encoun-
tered Him they had different interactions with and perceptions of Him.
As Father Creator (Yahweh) in the past.... As the Rabbi Jesus in Galilee
of the 1st century.... As a Holy Spirit of wisdom and power in dreams,
miracles, inspired Scripture and prophecy.
All of these are “modes” of the
One acting in history.
God (there is only one) has three
different ways of being.
When He is operating as one of
these, He cannot simultaneously
have the appearance and attri-
butes of the other two.
Is “Jesus” 1 of 3 “faces” of God?
Docetism is like modalism except that “Jesus” is merely a human shell
or cover which the One God “puts on” (and later abandons) in order to
appear on earth as a human being.
He did not become a human being, He just looked like one. There are
lots of possible analogies in 20th century sci-fi movies.
This explains the enigmatic words of Jesus from the cross:
This view is supported by Paul in his letter to the Philippians:
Was “Jesus” a disguise God put on?
“Christ Jesus, being in very nature God… made himself nothing, taking
the very nature of a servant, being made in human likeness, being found
in the appearance as a man, humbled himself…” – Phil 2:6-11
... Jesus cried out with a loud voice, saying, “Eli, Eli, lema sabachthani?”
that is, “My God, my God, why have you forsaken me?” – Mt. 27:46
Jesus is fully Divine, one of three Gods of equal status and power, each of
which has a unique personality and sphere of responsibility and cooper-
ates perfectly with the other two.
His “assignment” or “work” was to come to Earth as a human and die on
the cross to save mankind from sin. Some early church writers sounded
like they endorsed this position:
“We acknowledge a God, a Son, and a Holy Spirit, united in essence.”
-Athenagoras
“The three days {of creation} that
were before the luminaries are types
of the Triad of God, His Word, and
His Wisdom.” – Theophilus
Simple! Jesus is one of three Gods
It is the Father who anoints, it is the
Son who is anointed by the Spirit; the
Spirit is the oil of anointing.”
– Irenaeus
first and most be-
loved of creation,
existing before all
ages of the earth,
made to be co-
ruler and co-
creator with God,
not quite equal in
status with the
Father, a kind of
super-angel.
Arius (AD 256-336) was or-
dained a presbyter in AD 311.
Virtually all his theological
works were suppressed and,
so, lost. Despite concerted
opposition, Arian Christian
churches persisted through-
out Europe and N. Africa, and
in Gothic and Germanic king-
doms, until abandoned after
military conquest or royal
decree in the 5th-7th centuries.
“There was [a time]
when he [the Logos]
was not”
– Arius of Alexandria
Not so simple: Arianism
There is only one Supreme Almighty God (the
Father) who created Jesus as fully Divine, the
The Council
 The Emperor first appealed to key
church leaders (the bishops) to resolve
their differences amicably
 But he was not a man to wait for long
 When no agreement was forthcoming,
he ordered the disputing parties gather
to debate and resolve the conflict
 And so occurred a great Council of
bishops (318 in all) who traveled to
Nicea* at government expense
 Most were from rural sees, with little
formal education, confused by the
nuances of the controversy and over-
awed by the attention of the Emperor.
* Not far to the south of Constantinople (today, Istanbul,
Turkey), the newly constructed capital city of the Empire,
The Arian faction appealed to Eusebius, Bishop of Caesarea (the historian)
to submit one with more acceptable wording. His formulation, already in
use in his diocese, included this about Jesus, that he was:
“God of God, light of light, life of life, the only begotten Son,
first-born of all creation, begotten of the Father before all
ages, by whom all things were made”
The debate
Constantine himself opened the
Council in AD 325 with a keynote
speech that amounted to a warning:
get this done or else!
Eusebius, Bishop, Nicomedia, an
Arian, got everyone’s attention by
boldly and confidently submitting a
proposal that gave deity to Christ but
denied him status equal to that of the
Father. It was sounded defeated.
The Emperor said he liked it.
The decision
Not surprisingly, almost every else present agreed with Constantine
that it had potential.
So, Christ Jesus was not created by the Father from nothing at some
point in time (the Arian position) but was, rather, begotten from the
same “stuff” (ousia, substance) as the Father, from eternity.
After some wordsmithing and the addition at the end of “anathemas”
(condemnations) of Arian catch-phrases, the statement received
overwhelming support. Almost all of the bishops signed it; the two
who did not were (no surprise!) excommunicated.
The approved statement is the earliest version of what we call the
Nicene Creed. The more familiar version was the result of further
editing done in 381 at another great council (of Constantinople).
The following slide is a comparison of these versions.
We believe in one God, the Father
Almighty, Maker of all things visible and
invisible.
We believe in one God, the Father Almighty, Maker of
heaven and earth, and of all things visible and
invisible.
And in one Lord Jesus Christ, the Son of
God, begotten of the Father the only-
begotten; that is, of the essence of the
Father, God of God, Light of Light, very
God of very God, begotten, not made,
being of one substance with the Father;
And in one Lord Jesus Christ, the only-begotten Son of
God, begotten of the Father before all worlds, Light of
Light, very God of very God, begotten, not made, being
of one substance with the Father;
By whom all things were made both in
heaven and on earth;
by whom all things were made;
Who for us men, and for our salvation,
came down and was incarnate and was
made man;
who for us men, and for our salvation, came down
from heaven, and was incarnate by the Holy Ghost of
the Virgin Mary, and was made man;
He suffered, and the third day he rose
again, ascended into heaven;
he was crucified for us under Pontius Pilate, and
suffered, and was buried, and the third day he rose
again, according to the Scriptures, and ascended into
heaven, and sits on the right hand of the Father;
From thence he shall come to judge the
living and the dead.
from thence he shall come again, with glory, to judge
the living and the dead;
And in the Holy Ghost. whose kingdom shall have no end.
This heavy-handed approach to crafting “right doctrine” failed.
The proverbial dust did not settle for hundreds of years.
When, 85 years later, Visigoths led by Alaric sacked Rome (AD 410), the
“barbarian” raiders were Christians, Arian Christians. The sack was a
huge shock to contemporaries.
By then, Rome was no longer the capital of the western part of the
Roman Empire. Nevertheless, as "the eternal city“ it retained an
important position, especially as the spiritual center of the Empire.
Even more power and influence shifted to the seat of government in
the East, at Constantinople.
Legacy
Today, many Christians recite the ancient Creed without a thought.
If questioned at an unguarded moment however, they might
espouse Docetic, Modalist or Arian beliefs. Old heresies never die!
Why can’t we explain the Trinity?
St. Patrick used a shamrock, a poor model for Trinity,
as are all simplified pictures that try to be helpful.
Big problem areas for any explanation are:
(1) Everything familiar to us, useful as an illustration,
is a thing (matter/energy) that exists in space and time.
But God is not a thing (He is uncreated) and He “is” beyond
the bounds of space/time (which He created).
(2) Humans are limited in knowledge, understanding partially even
familiar things, limited to that which our senses take in (even
amplified by devices and probes) and to what our reasoning and
imagination can reach;
(3) And all (verbal/written) explanations consist of words in a language,
words with many possible meanings.
Why can’t we explain the Trinity?
St. Patrick used a shamrock, a poor model for Trinity,
as are all simplified pictures that try to be helpful.
Big problem areas for any explanation are:
(1) Everything familiar to us, useful as an illustration,
is a thing (matter/energy) that exists in space and time.
But God is not a thing (He is uncreated) and He “is” beyond
the bounds of space/time (which He created).
(2) Humans are limited in knowledge, understanding partially even
familiar things, limited to that which our senses take in (even
amplified by devices and probes) and our reasoning and imagin-
ation can reach;
(3) And all (verbal/written) explanations consist of words in a language,
words with many possible meanings.
“The language of religion and of theology abounds
in modes of discourse in which language has been
stretched beyond its normal usages. We would
utterly misunderstand such language if we took it
in its literal sense as if it referred in a straight-
forward way... Religious and theological language
is… “mythological”, “symbolical”, “analogical”,
“paradoxical”, or whatever it may be.”
- John Macquarrie
Theology ever renewed
And it will be difficult because it will
try to express the basis of Christian
faith, a faith that from earliest times
spoke of Jesus as the “Son” born of
the “Spirit”, the incarnate “Word” of
the “Father.”
Wow!
How we talk about our faith, our relationship with God, and what it
means to us and to our fellow believers, all of this is theology.
Because language, our society, and our world view changes over
time, theology must be renewed and refreshed in each generation.
Everyone can learn to re-tell the Good News. But we must work to
get the story “right”, spoken of the best way we can manage even if
the language is difficult.
End of Lesson 1
Challenges and Controversies
in the course of Christian history
Part 1: Formulation and Reformation
Lesson 2: Saving Souls and Civilization
Challenges and Controversies
in the course of Christian history
Part 1: Formulation and Reformation
Previously The Roman Emperor
Constantine favors the new religion,
Christianity.... So many people want
to be baptized that the lengthy
period for instruction in the Faith is
curtailed... Acrimonious squabbling
among Church leaders threatens
unity... So in AD 325 he brings
together a Council... Bishops debate
and “settle” the tricky theological
question of the nature of God (One,
yet Trinity)... then keep fighting with
increasing worldly wealth & political
power... Some Christians crave a
simpler, holier life following Jesus.
What does it mean to follow Christ?
As government-sanctioned Church institutions grew in political power
and wealth, a few people saw such developments as contrary to the
call of Christ to a life of self-denial, frequent prayer and service.
The cave of St. Benedict, Subiaco, Italy
In response, they pio-
neered a way of life
that saved souls and,
in time to a signifi-
cant degree, Western
civilization itself.
Following Jesus
{Jesus said}… “Seek first his kingdom and his righteousness and all
these things will be given to you also...” - Mt. 6:33-34
Jesus {said to the Pharisees}..., “Whoever follows me will not walk in
darkness, but will have the light of life.” - Jn. 8:12-13
Jesus... was led by the Spirit into the wilderness... he was tempted
by the devil. He ate nothing during those days... - Lk. 4:1-2
Jesus... said to him, “You lack one thing: go, sell all that you have and
give to the poor... and come, follow me.” - Mk. 10:21
 Born in Koma, Lower Egypt, ca. 251 (d. 356)
 Biography of Anthony's life by Athanasius of
Alexandria spread the concept of monasticism
 From monachos, “solitary” from “mono” (one)
 Referred to as the first monk, but as his own
bio makes clear, there were ascetics before him
 Anthony was, however, the first ascetic to go live
in the desert, which contributed to his renown
 Accounts of Anthony enduring supernatural
temptation during his time in the Libyan wild-
erness is an often-repeated subject in Western
art and literature
 Emperor Constantine’s support of Christianity greatly expanded
the ranks of those willing and able to retreat into solitude.
Anthony, desert Father
 The Essenes, a sect of Judaism that flourished from the 2nd century
BC-1st century AD, set the precedent for seeking ascetic holiness
 Members lived in cities but congregated in for communal life in
Qumran, in the Judean desert near the Dead Sea
 Not mentioned in the NT; likely many fewer in number than the
Pharisees and Sadducees
 Dedicated to a disciplined
life of poverty, ritual wash-
ings, renunciation of world-
ly pleasures, and celibacy
 Scholars think they com-
piled the texts that com-
prise the Dead Sea Scrolls
Christians were not the first to retreat
 Born AD 480, son of a Roman noble of Nursia (modern Norcia), in
Umbria, Italy; had a twin sister, Scholastica
 While studying classic literature, he came to see his life and that of
his friends as dissolute and immoral
 Left all to be a hermit at Subiaco for three years; gaining a reputa-
tion for holiness so much so that...
 ...on the death of the head of a nearby monas-
tery, the monks there beg him to take charge
 He agreed but his leadership was too strict for
them so they tried to poison him (he lived).
 He went on to found 12 monasteries and
then the great monastery of Monte Cassino
 He had no intention of founding an order. To
this day, Benedictine abbeys are independent.
Benedict of Nursia
• The Rule of Saint Benedict was a book
of precepts to order and guide the
communal life of Benedictine monks
• Demanded firm discipline, poverty,
and chastity, but not harsh asceticism
• It set eight regular hours of prayer
(Matins, Lauds, Prime, Terce, etc.)
• Demanded willing, prompt obedience
to the monastery head, the Abbot.
• In use for 1500 years as normative for
Western Christian monasticism
• It’s spirit is the traditional motto ora
et labora ("pray and work")
• Adopted since the 7th century by
communities of women (convents).
One Rule to rule them all
Let us do {this}: “I will take heed of my ways, that I sin not with my
tongue: I have set a guard to my mouth, I was dumb, and was
humbled, and kept silence even from good things" (Ps 39:1-3).
Therefore... let permission to speak be seldom given… even for good
and holy and edifying discourse, for it is written: "In much talk you will
not escape sin" (Prov. 10:19). And elsewhere: "Death and life are in
the power of the tongue" (Prov. 18:21).
For it belongs to the master to speak and to teach, the disciple to be
silent and to listen.
If, therefore, anything must be asked of the Superior, let it be asked
with all humility and respectful submission.
We condemn jests and idle words or speech provoking laughter.
CHAPTER VI Of Silence
Benedict’s rule on silence
CHAPTER XX Of Reverence at Prayer
We approach those in power with humility and reverence when we
wish to ask a favor; how much must we beseech the Lord God with
Benedict’s rule on prayer
all humility and purity of devotion?
And let us be assured that it is not in many
words, but in the purity of heart and tears
of compunction that we are heard.
For this reason prayer ought to be short
and pure, unless, perhaps lengthened by
the inspiration of divine grace.
At the community exercises,
let the prayer always be short. (!)
The penultimate rule
CHAPTER LXXII Of the Virtuous Zeal Which Monks Ought to Have
There is a virtuous zeal which separates one from vice and leads to
God and life everlasting.
Let the monks practice this zeal with most ardent love; namely, that
in honor they forerun one another (Rom 12:10).
Let them bear their infirmities, whether of body or mind, with the
utmost patience; let them vie with one another in obedience.
Let no one follow what he thinks useful to himself, but rather to
another. Let them practice fraternal charity with a chaste love.
Let them fear God and love their Abbot...
Let them prefer nothing whatever to Christ, and my He lead us all
together to life everlasting.
A rule of reason
 Compared to other precepts, the Rule
provided a way to curb extremes of individ-
ual ascetic zeal and strict institutionalism
 Because of this middle ground it was widely
popular and was adopted by many newly-
founded religious Orders.
 It addressed spiritual and physical needs
of people living in community while:
a. Establishing and maintaining order
b. Fostering an understanding of people as
relational, interdependent beings
c. Providing less mature monks with mentors to support and
strengthen them as they developed their own ascetic practices
and spiritual growth to become like Christ.
Methodists also have rules
 In 1729, at Oxford, members of a what was named “the Holy Club”
were called Methodists because they practiced methods of holiness.
 John Wesley taught that “a Methodist is one that lives according to
the method laid down in the Bible... to Christian perfection”
 WWJD? “Whenever you are to do an action, consider how God did or
would do the like, and do you imitate His example.”
JW’s General Rules as to Intention
1. In every act reflect on the end.
2. Begin every action in the name of
the Father, Son and Holy Ghost.
3. Begin important work with prayer.
4. Do not leave off a duty because
you are tempted to do so.
Wesley’s method like Benedict’s Rule?
General Rules for employing time (from the diary of John Wesley)
1. Begin and end every day with God - sleep not immoderately
2. Be diligent in your calling.
3. Employ all spare hours in religion, as able.
4. And all holidays (holy days).
5. Avoid drunkards and busybodies.
6. Avoid curiosity and all useless employments and knowledge.
7. Examine yourself every night.
8. Never pass a day without setting
aside at least 1 hour for devotion
9. Avoid all manner of passion.
Monasteries and abbeys
come in many shapes and sizes
Saint Catherine’s Monastery, Sinai, Egypt
Mont St. Michel
Normandy, France
Alcobaça, Portugal
founded 1153
Ostrog, Ostroška Greda,
Serbia (17th Century)
Glendalough, Ireland (ruins),
one of the most important
Irish monasteries, founded
by St. Kevin in the 6th century
Eberbach Monestery, near Mainz, Germany
Gelati, Western Georgia (1106)
Mount Athos
Halkidiki Peninsula
Northern Greece
Monte Cassino (inset, right,
after Allied bombing in WW2)
1-7. Church
8. Cloister
9. Garden
11. Dormitory
13. Sacristy
14. Library
15. Chapter House
16. Necessarium
17. Water supply
12,19. Night Stair
20. Kitchen
21. Dining Rm.
22. Warming Rm.
Typical monastery layout
Hildegard of Bingen
 A Benedictine abbess, she
founded a dozen monasteries
 She wrote theological, botanical
and medicinal texts, letters,
songs, and poems
 One of her works, the Ordo
Virtutum, is an early example of
liturgical drama, arguably the
oldest extant morality play
 She supervised the creation of
brilliant miniature illuminations
 Pope Benedict XVI named her a
Doctor of the Church in 2012.
German writer, composer, philosopher, visionary (1098-1179)
Brother Cadfael (pronounced cad-vile) is a
Benedictine monk of Shrewsbury Monastery,
on the Welsh border of western England in the
12th century, the protagonist in a series of 20
murder mysteries written between 1977-1994
by linguist-scholar Edith Pargeter under the
name "Ellis Peters".
These stories draw you into the daily life of a
typical English monastic community while re-imagining the time referred
to as “the Anarchy” when two contenders, King Stephen and the Empress
Maud, fought each other for the crown of England.
Cadfael is a skillful observer of human nature, inquisitive by nature,
energetic, a talented herbalist with a sense of justice and fair-play. His
Abbot calls on him often to act as medical examiner, sleuth, and diplomat.
Also 13 TV episodes on “Mystery” 1994-1998 starring Sir Derek Jacobi
Experience monastery life
Brother Cadfael’s monastery is marked today by the
Abbey Church of St. Peter and St. Paul, which
still stands by the River Severn in
Shrewsbury, England.
 About 970 AD, St. Dunstan, with the aid of King Edgar, installed a
community of Benedictine monks here
 Legends say it was founded by a Bishop Mellitus, ca. 620 and built
on what was then “Thorn Island” in the middle of the Thames River
 Tradition has it that a fisherman named Aldrich saw a vision of Saint
Peter nearby, so its official name is The Collegiate Church of St Peter
 This is why gifts of salmon were given to the Abbey by local fisher-
men; the Fishmonger's Company still gives a salmon every year
 The abbey church gained considerably more importance after 1245
when King Henry III expanded it to be a fit place for his burial
 Many royal events were subsequently held here (and still are)
 The Abbot is a member of the House of Lords.
What abbey am I?
Westminster Abbey,
London, England
Keeping literacy alive
From the very beginning of monasticism, copy-
ing rooms were installed in the monasteries and
the copying of manuscripts held in esteem.
The Rule required monks to study Scripture and
the writings of the Church Fathers and monas-
tery novices learned their letters by reading and
copying sacred texts.
Hence the demand, especially for Gospels,
Psalms, and Mass books (missals). Since they
wore out with use the demand for replacements
was incessant.
Some monks composed original works, for
example, historical chronicles, commentaries
and hymns.
A most illuminating work
A masterwork of Western
calligraphy, the Book of Kells
represents the pinnacle of a
fusion of art/scholarship in an
“illuminated manuscript.”
Presently exhibited in the
library of Trinity Univ., Dublin,
it is regarded as Ireland's
finest national treasure.
Text decoration combines
traditional Christian icono-
graphy with ornate swirling
motifs, figures of humans,
animals and mythical beasts,
together with Celtic knots,
all in vibrant colors.
 During the Dark Ages, monasteries were islands of scholarship in a
sea of ignorance
 Higher education and the training of clergy took place there for
hundreds of years; monks and nuns taught classes
 Evidence of this happening dates back to the 6th century
 Institutes of higher learning, especially of religion, promoted by
Charlemagne (r. 768-814), the first Holy Roman Emperor, who with
his sons was taught by an English deacon, Alcuin
 Universities and cathedral schools were a later continuation of the
interest in learning promoted by monks and nuns
 The earliest universities were developed by an order of the Church
(called a papal bull) as studia generalia – for all students
 Thus was founded the University of Paris (ca. 1150)
Monasteries begat universities
 Trivium
 Grammar
 Logic
 Rhetoric
 Quadrivium
 Arithmetic
 Geometry
 Music
 Astronomy
Universities taught
the basics
Universities taught
the basics
These seven areas of edu-
cation (“arts”) were deemed
essential to the education of
all free-born (“liberated”)
members of society, hence
the name given them,
the Liberal Arts.
If you learned all of these
subjects well, you earned
the degree of
Master of Arts (MA)
 During the Renaissance, Italian humanists re-christened the
Trivium the Studia humanitatis and increased its scope...
 ...by adding history, Greek, and ethics and making poetry the most
important member of the whole
 This new course of studies spread throughout Europe during the
16th century and became the educational foundation...
 ... for the schooling of European elites, functionaries of
political administration, the clergy, and the
learned professions of law and medicine
 The ideal of a liberal arts education
grounded in classical languages and
literature persisted well into the
20th century
 Today a liberal arts education refers
to having some familiarity with many
areas: literature, languages, psychology,
philosophy, mathematics, music, history,
social sciences, and economics.
Christianity can be proud
 Scripture does not explicitly commend to us education, learning, or
scholarship: in fact, it tells of Jesus admonishing scribes, and...
 ... 2Cor. 10:5 can be read as being anti-intellectual:
“We demolish arguments and every pretension that sets itself up
against the knowledge of God, and we take captive every thought
to make it obedient to Christ.”
 Still, we know that Paul, whose articulate letters are (with the Gospels)
the heart of the NT, was very well-educated, as were the Church
Fathers, who gave us foundational Christian theology
 Furthermore, Christian institutions were for centuries the loci of
literacy; government and church administration and monasteries and
convents were bastions of learning and literature
Christians can take pride in the Church for centuries of work of copying
and translating manuscripts, composing music, organizing communities,
educating youth, extending hospitality, establishing hospitals, and acting
as ambassadors and advisors to kings throughout the Western world.
End of Lesson 2
Challenges and Controversies
in the course of Christian history
Part 1: Formulation and Reformation
Lesson 3: A Prophet Challenges Christianity
Challenges and Controversies
in the course of Christian history
Part 1: Formulation and Reformation
This is the plan
determined for the
whole world;
This is the hand
stretched out
over all nations.
For the Lord Almighty
has purposed,
who can thwart him?
His hand is stretched
out, and who
can turn it back?
- Is. 14:26-27
Does God direct the course of battle?
He makes nations great, and destroys them. He enlarges
nations and disperses them. - Job 12:23
For God is the King of all the earth; Sing to him a psalm of praise;
God reigns over the nations; God is seated
on his holy throne.
The nobles of the nations
assemble as the people
of the God of Abraham,
For the kings of
the earth belong
to God...
- Ps. 47:7-9
Does God direct the course of battle?
During the American Civil War, President Lincoln was puzzled by what
the Divine will was for the country.
In contrast, people in both the Union and Confederate states were
certain that they knew God's will: He blessed their cause.
Julia Ward Howe's stirring Battle Hymn of the
Republic expressed sentiments common
in the North – that the Union army
waged God’s righteous war.
The Confederacy chose as its motto
(blazoned on its Great Seal) “Deo
Vindice”, that is, “God Will Vindicate
Us” (or God is our champion).
What do you think? Does God direct
the course of wars?
{God} is not served by human hands, as if he needed anything.
Rather, He Himself gives everyone life and breath and everything
else. From one man He made all the nations, that they should
inhabit the whole earth; and He marked out their appointed times
in history and the boundaries of their lands. - Acts 17:25-26
President Abraham Lincoln wrote the
following (undated, unpublished note):
“The will of God prevails. In great contests
each party claims to act in accordance
with the will of God.
Both may be, and one must be wrong.
God cannot be for, and against the same
thing at the same time.
In the present civil war it is quite possible
that God's purpose is some what different
from the purpose of either party...”
If God directed Christian history,
here’s what should have happened
1. After the Resurrection, there is a time of trials and persecution
2. Still, faithful bishops, teachers, and martyrs spread Christianity
3. God calls the Emperor Constantine to protect and support the faith
4. Christianity is triumphant throughout the known (civilized) world
5. Jerome produces the Vulgate, Augustine expounds doctrine, then -
6. God’s plan for all nations
is accomplished and His
Kingdom of peace, joy,
love, and abundance is
realized on earth.
But after events #1 - #5,
#6 did not happen.
What did happen was…
Rome is sacked first in 410 (by Visigoths), in 455 (by Vandals), and in
546 (by Goths). As the Empire collapsed, the western half broke up
into warring kingdoms. The eastern half remained an ordered whole
centered on Constantinople.
The Bishop of Rome
remained Head of
the Church and dir-
ected missionary
work among the
“barbarian” tribes.
But for 500 yrs, the
darkness of stagna-
tion, war, ignorance,
fear, disease and
poverty reigned.
The Christian World, 450 AD
....Dark Ages
 Justinian I (r. 527-565) sought to reconquer lost
portions of the Empire and revive it’s greatness.
 His general, Belisarius, conquered the Vandal
Kingdom in North Africa, then the Ostrogothic
Kingdom, restoring Dalmatia, Sicily, and Italy to
the Empire after 50 years of barbarian control.
 Because of his restoration activities, Justinian
has sometimes been called the “Last Roman”
 He continued the policy of Emperor Justin (his
uncle) to fight the spread of the Monophysite
heresy (condemned at the Council of Chalcedon; see Lesson Four)
 The impact of his administration extended far beyond the
boundaries of his time and domain.
 A more important legacy was the uniform re-writing of Roman law,
still the basis of civil law in many modern states
Ruler of law and order
Under Justinian
there occurred
a blossoming of
culture, and his
building pro-
gram yielded
such master-
pieces as the
Church of Holy
Wisdom, center
of Eastern
Orthodox
Christianity for
centuries.
 Gregory I (540-604, Pope 590-604) brought great
prestige and increased the power of the Papacy by
outstanding leadership and integrity, earning him
the sobriquet “Great.”
 Born into a wealthy landed Roman family with close
ties to the Church... received an excellent education
and became a government official... Advanced to be-
come Prefect (highest city civil office) by age 33.
 On his father's death, Gregory converted the family villa into a mon-
astery, lived as a monk for a few years, then served for six years as
Papal ambassador to the imperial court in Constantinople.
 Gregory returned to his monastery (AD 585) and was elected Abbot.
 When plague ravaged Rome, he worked with Pope Pelagius II to care
for the sick until the latter himself died of the disease. The clergy
acclaimed Gregory as his successor despite his protestations.
A leader of holiness and influence
 Acting as both ecclesiastical and secular auth-
ority, he organized, rebuilt, and energized the
city of Rome and the Church as a whole;
 Secured peace with the Lombard tribe (who
were trying to conquer all Italy);
 Preached widely and wrote prolifically, en-
couraging Christian commitment
A leader of greatness
 Reformed the liturgy of the Mass, and regularized the Church year;
 Persuaded the Visigoth king to switch from Arianism to Nicean
doctrine and sent missionaries to England (next slide)
 Western standard plain chant (Gregorian Chant) evolved from a
style attributed to him.
The Gregorian calendar, developed in the 16th
century, was named for Pope Gregory XIII
City of angels Angles
 A Benedictine missionary, Augustine,
is chosen by Pope Gregory to lead a
mission (AD 595) to England to the
pagan king, Ethelbert who had just
married a Christian, Queen Bertha
 Ethelbert's capital was the city of
Canterbury, in the kingdom of Kent
 To please his wife, the king embraced
Christianity, allowed the missionaries
to preach freely in his lands
 Augustine is consecrated as the first Archbishop of Canterbury
in AD 597, goes on to convert many of the people; thousands are
baptized en masse on Christmas Day that year alone.
 He is known today as the "Apostle to the English“ and founder
of the English Church.
Christianity spread and
thrived throughout the
Mediterranean world
but was not well en-
trenched beyond its
“edges”, e.g. Persia,
India, and the Arabian
Peninsula
Christian witness not strong everywhere
While Christianity spread in the West...
It is June, AD 622.
A man arrived at the loose collec-
tion of farming villages in a fertile
coastal area bordering the Red
Sea called Yathrib after a difficult
200 mile journey from the north
through wilderness.
Some 70 of his followers awaited
him, each having made the same
trip separately, a few a time, sur-
reptitiously.
All were fleeing persecution, seek-
ing a place to practice and preach
their faith in the one true God.
It is June, AD 622.
A man comes to the loose collec-
tion of farming villages in a fer-
tile coastal area bordering the
Red Sea called Yathrib after a
difficult 200 mile journey from
the north through wilderness.
Some 70 of his followers await
him, each having made the same
trip separately, a few a time,
surreptitiously.
All are fleeing persecution, seek-
ing a place to practice and preach
their faith in the one true God.
...a new faith arises in the desert
This event (the Hijra) is later considered so impor-
tant that his followers start a new calendar with this
event as day one, year one.
The success of his flight and of the subsequent
successful spread of his powerful faith alters the
course of Christian history and with it, world history.
As everyone in the well-connected the 21st century
knows, that new faith is now an influential factor in
the world events.
The man’s name: Muḥammad ibn Abd Allāh
Origins of a new religion
 Muhammad was born ca. 570 in Mecca, a bustling trading and
pilgrimage town on the western edge of the Arabian desert
 Orphaned at age 6, he was raised by his grandfather, then by a
wealthy and powerful uncle
 Growing up he learned how to manage trading caravans. He earned
a reputation for trustworthiness and was sought as an arbitrator
 His stellar reputation
attracted a marriage
proposal (AD 595) from
Khadijah, a wealthy 40-year-
old widowed merchant
 He proved to be an astute
businessman yet also
deeply spiritual, spending
long hours in meditation.
Origins of a new religion
 Tradition has it that one night he
was visited by the angel Gabriel
who ordered him to “recite” the
words of God that came to him
 During the rest of his life he
continued to receive revelations
that his followers compiled in a
book titled “Recitations” (Qu'ran)
 Believing that God had chosen
him as His messenger (or
prophet), he began to preach to
the people of his city, Mecca
 The message was simple; there is
only one God (Allah)
 Life should be lived in submission
(Islam) to His will.
 His message attracted some
people but threated those in
power who controlled access
to the shrine (the Ka’ba) of
the many regional gods
 After Muhammad’s uncle and
protector died, the city rulers
decided to rid themselves of
this bothersome prophet
 He eluded assassination by
fleeing to Yathrib, later
named Medina, “the city of
the prophet”, the move later
called the Hijra.
Intrigue, drama and violence
Fight / Write
 After this, the first leader (caliph) to
succeed him, Abu Bakr, enlisted scribes
who had worked under the Prophet to
collect the Recitations and produce the
first complete one-volume manuscript.
 Abu Bakr's original was then used to
prepare “authorized” or standard copies
of the Qu’an (or Koran).
 Over the next 8 years Muhammad fought attacks sent from Mecca
(lost some, won some) and gained followers and political clout
 In 630, he returned to Mecca with 10,000 fighters and entered the
city almost unopposed. His former enemies converted to Islam
 He was accepted in the region as Prophet of God, and led the
community spiritually and politically until his death in 632.
 There is only One God (absolutely no Trinity); God has sent
prophets to mankind to teach them how to live
 Jesus, Moses and Abraham are all respected as prophets but…
 …the final and most important prophet was Muhammad to whom
God revealed His most perfect teachings to complete the others
 Although Islam has always existed, for practical
purposes its beginning is dated from the
year Muhammad fled to Medina
Islam in a nutshell
 Islamic legal code (sharia) is based on the
Qur'an, the life of the Prophet (Sunnah),
and juridical consensus (ijma)
 Acts that Muslims must perform (5 Pillars
of Islam): say the declaration of faith, pray 5
times/day, give alms, fast 1 month (Ramadan)
and make pilgrimage (Haj) to Mecca at least once.
Spread of the new faith
In 100 years, Islam swept away Christianity in Persia,
North Africa, and Spain. Why such rapid conversion?
Weakness of the old faith
Islam spread so rapidly in part because Christianity was
weakened by centuries of doctrinal strife, heavy taxation
by Byzantine rulers (who did not defend against plun-
dering by marauders) and endless local power struggles.
 Military conquest* by Umayyad (661-750) and Abbasid (750-900)
dynasties was the main reason for this rapid spread but Muslim
leaders tolerated other faiths and usually did not force conversion
 People learned of Islam through beneficial trading activity, it was
simple, and it had a clear set of beliefs and practices that earned
heaven and avoided eternity in hell;
 It appealed to lower-class groups because of its commitment to
charity and spiritual equality and it appealed to the middle
classes because it legitimated merchant activity more than did
most belief systems;
 The power and success of Muslim armies alone attracted
people to the faith that drove them on;
 The conquerors also levied a special tax
on minority communities, so it paid one
to convert.
Appeal of the new faith
*Holy War (Jihad,
“struggle”) is a term
applied primarily to
one’s personal fight
against sin.
Muslim forces from Spain invading France in AD 732 were defeated by
Frankish and Burgundianforces under Charles Martel (“the Hammer”)
at the Battle of Tours (Oct. 10, 732).
Limit of the new faith
This was the decisive turning point in the
struggle of Western Christendom against
Islam, and so preserved Christianity as
the dominant religion of Europe.
The battle was fought in an area between
Poitiers and Tours (west-central France).
The leader of the invasion force, Abdul
Rahman Al Ghafiqi, was killed and Charles
subsequently extended his authority in
the south of France.
The Muslim army was driven back over
the Pyrenees.
 Many centers of Christian history, thought, leadership and influ-
ence are taken under Muslim rule, including Jerusalem, Antioch,
Damascus, Carthage and Alexandria (but not as yet Constantinople)
 The Iberian peninsula, invaded in AD 711, remains under Muslim
rule until 1492. From there, Islamic scholars seed the Renaissance
 Christianity, where it does persist under tolerant Muslim control,
does not grow and is largely cut off from Western Christianity
 The geography of Christian activity changes, shifting from lands
bordering the Mediterranean Sea to northern and continental
regions controlled by the Franks, Angles, and Germanic tribes
 Orthodoxy has no option but to expand north and east into Slavic
lands and Russia, which it does
 The Byzantine Empire is reduced considerably in size, roughly to
the regions constituting modern-day Turkey and Greece.
Islam’s effect on Christianity
Christianity’s response
 Western kingdoms responded by
re-taking control of the Levant
by force of arms (1st Crusade,
1096-1099)
 Within 50 yrs most of the region
was back under Muslim control.
French and German forces (2nd
Crusade, 1147-1149), trying to
win it back, were crushed.
 A 3rd Crusade (1197-1192, fea-
tured Richard Lionheart) won
little, reached a peace treaty.
 Despite the bloodshed, the West
benefited from contact with
Islam through trading and
access to Islamic scholarship.
It was a golden age
 Islamic countries experienced a “golden” period of cultural, economic
and scientific flourishing from the 8th to the 14th century...
 ...kicked off by the founding of the House of Wisdom in Baghdad
where scholars from various cultures and regions gathered to translate
the world's classical knowledge into Arabic.
 Just a sampling of many Islamic con-
tributions include the manufacture
of rag paper, preservation of works
of Plato and Aristotle, the use of
Arabic numerals, developments in
chemistry (al Kimiya), astronomy,
poetry, law, and medicine
 Islamic art and architecture reached
a high level with the building and
decoration of great mosques.
Interior, Sultan Ahmed (or
Blue) Mosque in Istanbul,
Turkey, built 1609-1616.
Moorish architecture reached its peak with the Alhambra,
palace of Granada, with its open and breezy interior spaces
decorated with geometrically patterned glazed tiles, stylized
foliage motifs, Arabic inscriptions, and arabesque designs.
Islam today
 2nd largest religious group claiming ca. 1.9B adherents (ca. 25% of world
population); most belong to either Sunni (~85%) or Shia (~15%) branches
 Countries with the largest Muslim members are (by rank): Indonesia,
Pakistan, Bangeldesh and India (where it is 2nd after Hinduism)
 Dominant religion of Central Asia, the Middle East, and North Africa.
 Though a minority religion in
Europe (6%), N. America (1%) and S.
America (0.2%), it is...
 ...the fastest-growing faith in the
world (1.8%/yr vs. 1.3%/yr for
Christianity), mostly due to higher
birthrates, not conversions.
 Some 2M completed the Hajj
(pilgrimage to Mecca) in 2018
(photo, left).
Islam (and Christianity) tomorrow?
ISLAM
Muslims believe that God desires all
people everywhere to submit to
Him. This is to be a voluntary matter
of the heart and soul.
 Dar-al-Islam All regions where
Islam is already the dominant
religious group and the tenents
of the faith permeate culture,
business and government
 Dar-al-harb Regions where
Islam, though a significant
presence, is not dominant but is
“fighting” to gain control
 Dar-al-sulh Regions where Islam
is not dominant and is not (yet)
actively trying to gain adherents
CHRISTIANITY
Christians believe that God offers all
people the free gift of forgiveness and
salvation in Jesus Christ and a new life
in the power of the Holy Spirit.
 Christian Nations Regions where
Christianity is the dominant
religion (if fractured into many
denominations) and permeates
culture, business and government
 Mission Fields Regions where
Christianity is not dominant but
has established ministries and is
actively in proselytizing
 [Needs Prayer] Where Christianity
is absent or disappearing, i.e. Islam
or secularism dominates.
End of Lesson 3
Challenges and Controversies
in the course of Christian history
Part 1: Formulation and Reformation
Lesson 4: East Side, West Side
Challenges and Controversies
in the course of Christian history
Part 1: Formulation and Reformation
The well-ordered harmonious Church
Formal organization of the Church began as it separated from Judaism
after the destruction of Jerusalem in AD 70.
In letters of the NT written late in the 1st century there is reference to
“overseers” (episkopes, or bishops) and “deacons” (diakonous, or
elders/priests, e.g. in 1Tim. 3).
There are many references to a three-ranked church hierarchy in the 2nd
century writings of “Church Fathers”. Two examples are:
I exhort you, do all things with divine harmony, while your bishop
presides in the place of God, and your elders in the place of the
assembly of the apostles, along with your deacons. - Ignatius c. 105
Innumerable commands… are written in the Holy Scriptures per-
taining to chosen persons: some to elders, some to bishops,
some to deacons. - Clement of Alexandria c. 195
No verses in the NT lead one to expect that the Church was,
is, or should be anything other than unified and harmonious.
[The catholic church] believes points
of doctrine just as if she had only one
soul and the same heart and she
proclaims them and teaches them in
perfect harmony…
For the churches planted in Germany
do not believe anything different nor
do those in Spain nor those in Gaul
not those in the East nor those in
Egypt nor those in Africa…
- Irenaeus of Lyon, Against Heresies, 1.10.2 (ca. AD 190)
Unity of the universal church
The one ark of Noah was a type
of the one church.
- Cyprian (ca. AD 250)
The catholic church is one.
- Victorinus (ca. AD 280)
As his own writing “Against Heresy” made clear, there never was
universal harmony in Christendom. Today there are countless
denominations, splinter/fringe groups from these, non-denomi-
national churches, and religious organizations that are debatably
Christian (e.g. the Mormons).
Why are there so many divisions in the Body of Christ?
Irenaeus, et. al. were dreaming
Do warped people cause divisions?
But avoid foolish controversies and
genealogies and arguments and
quarrels about the law, because these
are unprofitable and useless.
Warn a divisive person once, and then
warn them a second time.
After that, have nothing to do with
them.
You may be sure that such people are
warped and sinful; they are self-
condemned.
- Titus 3:9-11
If both sides of a contro-
troversy take this position,
schism is sure to result
Love of arguments, partisanship, or reducing complex issues simplistic
“black/white” solutions– all of these are as old as humanity.
In the past, disputations on theology were not limited to theologians
and learned church dignitaries- lay people took sides in heated debate.
According to Gregory Nazianzen (4th century):
“This city is full of mechanics and slaves who
are all profound theologians and preachers in
the shops and in the streets. Ask a man to
change a piece of silver, he informs you how
the Son differs from the Father, ask about
the price of a loaf of bread, you are told in
reply that the Son is inferior to the Father, and
inquire whether the bath is ready, the answer
is that the Son was made out of nothing.”
Do foolish controversies cause divisions?
The Nicean Creed as amended and ratified at the 2nd Great
Council (of Constantinople in AD 381) read:
“I believe … in one Lord Jesus Christ, the only-begotten Son of
God.... very God of very God, begotten, not made... of one sub-
tance with the Father... came down...and was incarnate by the
Holy Spirit of the Virgin Mary...made man…”
Sounds like Jesus was, from eternity, one with God, but then
he became human for a while. So, is Jesus still “man”? Did he
switch back to be God after his crucifixion?
The puzzle that was Jesus
Or is he (somehow) God and man at the same time?
Christians have wrestled with this question
since the late 2nd century, when highly edu-
cated, literate Christian thinkers began
writing about “Christology”.
Wrestling with theology
Christian history is rich in literate men and women of holiness and
great intellect who left us a record of their struggles in coming to faith
in Jesus Christ, in proclaiming that faith and in expressing its depths,
the discipline we now call “theology.”
Four of the most important from the 3rd and 4th centuries are:
John Chrysotom (349-407) Archbishop (Constantinople) popular for fiery
but practical preaching, spoke against Church abuses, eventually exiled.
Jerome (347 - 420) Scholar of the 1st rank, produced a Latin translation of
the Bible (the Vulgate) that served as the Bible for 1,000 years.
Gregory of Nazianzus (329-390) Archbishop (Constantinople), Greek
writer, theologian, philosopher, acclaimed orator, defended the Trinity.
Augustine, Bishop of Hippo (354-430) Perhaps the most influential theo-
logian of all time, Latin writer of the 1st autobiography, “The Confessions”.
“Nor did the Son truly redeem us by his own blood if
he did not really become man.” - Irenaeus (ca. AD 180)
 Followers of Nestorius (Patriarch, Constantinople, 428-431) taught
that Jesus possessed two separate and distinctive “natures”, one
divine, one human. Did that mean that Jesus had a split personality?
 Dioscurus (Patriarch of Alexandria) rejected the disunity of Jesus and
instead taught monophysitism (“one soul”), i.e. Jesus had one nature
and one personality in which divinity and humanity blended at all
times. Did that mean that Jesus was not really God or human?
How can Jesus be human and God?
Other Christians, for whom Pope Leo I (440-461) was the
leading voice, sensed that neither of these was the “right”
expression of the unity in one Person of the two Natures of
true God and true Man realized in Jesus by the Incarnation.
In the East, a victory for the West
In AD 450, Emperor Theodosius II, a Monophysite sympathizer, died when
thrown from his horse and his sister, Pulcheria, a friend of Pope Leo chose
Marcian to be her consort and new Emperor.
Few people debate this doctrine nowadays because we gave
up long ago trying to explain the Incarnation and just repeat
what was handed down to us from this long-ago Council.
She persuaded him to call a 4th Ecumenical
Council of over 500 bishops, held AD 451 in
Chalcedon, Bithynia, not far from the capital,
to debate and resolve the divisive Christo-
logical dispute.
Agreement was reached and Christianity had
its “right belief” in the careful wording of the
Chalcedonian Definition. The orthodox
position: Jesus was 1 Person with 2 Natures.
 The Nicene Creed of AD 381 also read: “I believe … in the Holy
Spirit, the Lord, the Giver of life, who proceeds from the Father, who
with the Father and the Son is worshipped and together glorified…”
 Beginning at some time in Spain, Christians, likely as a guard against
Arianism, inserted the phrase “and from the son” (Latin: filio que)
 Its use spread slowly without much notice until Charlemagne’s
court fanned controversy by accusing Greek churches of heresy for
not including it in their recitations
 Pope Leo III (795-816) agreed that the filioque was sound doctrine
but he did not endorse a change with the traditional wording
 Greek patriarchs countered that the filioque was bad theology; if
the West changed the Creed without consent of the East, the West
would be guilty of sinning against the unity of the church.
More East-West disagreement
But theological wrangling did not end. Another serious dust-up
occurred over the question of “procession.”
Is the Bishop of Rome supreme?
 Five patriarchs (of Jerusalem, Constantinople, Alexandria, Antioch,
Rome) held primary authority in their regions in the early Church.
 Deference was accorded the Bishop of Rome, the capital city of the
Empire until AD 325 and where Apostle Peter died a martyr
 Authority for Orthodox Christianity is neither Pope nor Bible, but
Scripture as interpreted by the ecumenical councils of the church.
 Orthodoxy also relies heavily on the writings of early Greek fathers such
as Gregory of Nyssa, John Chrysostom and St. Basil the Great.
Cultural
Linguistic
Liturgical
Theological
Geographical
Supremacy
Differences ran deep
East – West: who’s right, who decides?
Eastern Empire
Constantinople
Western Empire
Rome
In 768, Charles, son of Pepin the Short
and grandson of Charles Martel, and his
brother Carloman become joint rulers of
the Frankish kingdom. But soon Carloman
died (771) and Charles, now king alone
goes energetically to work enlarging the
Frankish realm by conquering Saxony,
Lombardy and Bavaria, earning a new
name “Charles the Great”, Charlemagne.
On Christmas Day of 800, while the
devout king kneels at the altar of St. Peter's Basilica, Pope Leo III
crowns him "Emperor of the Romans”, an insult to the then ruling
Empress of the Eastern Roman Empire.
He establishes his capital at Aachen, where he dies in 814. Ironically,
his elaborate burial clothing was made in Constantinople.
A great king of the West arises
Charlemagne’s Empire (AD 814)
Charlemagne introduced valuable and lasting reforms in the Church
besides just conquering regions of Europe.
 Appointed as bishops men he determined were worthy leaders
 Ordered that preaching be done in the languages of the people
 Made sure Sunday was honored as a day of rest
 Collected a tithe for the church like it was a tax
 Brought monasteries into compliance with the Rule of Benedict
 Had a school set up in every parish open to all, even the poor.
Reforms in the West - Struggles in the East
While the Empire in the West was thriving under the leader-
ship of Charlemagne and Pope Leo III...
Eastern Orthodoxy pushes north into central Europe & Russia
... the Byzantine Empire in the East was reduced in size to
Asia Minor + Greece as a result of a war with Persia and the
conquests of the Islamic Caliphate.
They were opposed by missionaries from Germany who were trying to
impress Latin (Western) rites on the people.
Partisan squabbling ended when Hungarians (Magyars) aggressively
fought their way across Europe beginning in AD 906 and took control of
much of eastern Europe. By AD 1001, however, they converted to
Christianity. Different regions chose liturgical styles, East or West.
E-W friction in Central Europe
Political and religious interests combined to
give a boost to Orthodox Christianity in central
Europe.
In the mid-800’s brothers Cyril and Methodius
(right) gained fame and sainthood for their
efforts to instill Eastern liturgical theology and
practices in Slavic peoples who settled north
of the Danube helped along with a new alpha-
bet (Cyrillic) they devised.
Relations between Constantinople & Rome grew steady
worse. In 1053, after Greeks in Italy are forced to conform
to Western worship practices, Patriarch of Constantinople,
Michael Cerularis demanded that Latins there adopt
Greek practices; when they refuse he shut them down.
Then the Bulgarian Archbishop sent a letter to Cardinal
Humbert, Papal Secretary to Pope Leo IX, harshly criticizing
Western practices.
Russia goes Christian
After Latin missionaries converted Olga, Queen of the Rus,
to Christianity in AD 950, her efforts to bring the faith to her
people earned her veneration as the 1st Saint of Russia.
But it was her grandson Vladimir who completed the
conversion of the entire nation, taking on help to do so
from Byzantium, not Rome.
The Pope orders Humbert to head a legatine mission
to Constantinople with an uncompromising response.
Great schism!
This event represented a definite break, not just an estrangement of
Eastern Orthodox Christianity and Western, or Roman Catholic,
Christianity. It is now used to date the start of “The Great Schism.”
The Pope’s delegation traveled to
Constantinople in the following
year (1054) and received a cordial
welcome by Emperor Constantine
IX. It is, however, spurned by
Patriarch Michael.
And with good reason. During
celebration of the Mass, Cardinal
Patriarch Michael in turn excommunicates the Cardinal and the Pope.
Humbert lays a Papal Bull of excommunication of the Patriarch on
the altar of the Church of Holy Wisdom (Hagia Sophia, above).
1453 – An Ottoman (Muslim) army cap-
tures Constantinople, converts the Hagia
Sophia into a mosque (now a museum).
Eastern Orthodoxy remains strong north
of Turkey, and is today the major faith of
Russia (ca. 60% of the pop.), Ukraine (ca.
70%), Romania (80%), Belarus (ca. 65%),
Fast forward
Greece (97%), Serbia
(85%), Bulgaria (88%),
Moldova (93%), Georgia
(84%), Macedonia (65%),
Cyprus (89%) and
Montenegro (72%).
Orthodox strong, but... Greece today is a nearly all-
Christian nation, the 2nd-most
religious country in Europe
(after Romania); it’s Constitution
designates Orthodoxy as its
national religion and being
Orthodox is widely seen as
synonymous with being Greek.
And yet, in 11/18 the govern-
ment and the Church reached an
agreement in what was widely
seen as the first step towards separation of the two. Change will be likely
be gradual, but these current privileges are at risk:
 Clergy salaries and pensions are paid by the government; churches pay
no tax on revenues; some use land that is State-owned;
 The government recognizes Church canon law in matters pertaining to
church administration
 Church marriages and baptisms are legally equal to civil counterparts
 Orthodox students in 1o and 2o schools attend religious instruction.
In the middle of the 14th
century, lethal plague
caused by the bactrium
Yersinia pestis, possibly
originating in central Asia
and spread by fleas
hosted by rats, swept
across Europe killing from
about 35-50% of the pop-
ulation (estimates vary
widely, perhaps 100-200
million people out of
ca. 450 million).
Unimaginable horror
What life was like in about the year 1400?
 Everyone lives a pastoral life in a small village
 No schools - no one can read/write/add except the monks in the
region’s monastery – it is an oral culture
 No news except a King’s crier (usually taxation or war) or by way
of a (rare) visit by an entertainer, peddler, or troubadour
 Elders dispense justice guided by custom passed down
 No roads – only a few rough tracks (an no signposts); travel is
dangerous because there are no maps; people get lost easily
 No clocks, no calendars; only sense of passing time sense comes
from the sun, moon and seasons
 People memorize everything of value – stories, Bible passages,
customs, details of trades (no written contracts)
Isolation, ignorance, and illiteracy
What life was like in about the year 1400?
 Everyone lives a pastoral life in a small village
 No schools - no one can read/write/add except the monks in the
region’s monastery – it is an oral culture
 No news except a King’s crier (usually taxation or war) or by way
of a (rare) visit by an entertainer, peddler, or troubadour
 Elders dispense justice guided by custom passed down
 No roads – only a few rough tracks (an no signposts); travel is
dangerous because there are no maps; people get lost easily
 No clocks, no calendars; only sense of passing time sense comes
from the sun, moon and seasons
 People memorize everything of value – stories, Bible passages,
customs, details of trades (no written contracts)
Isolation, ignorance, and illiteracy
"In such condition there is no place for industry,
because the fruit there of is uncertain and,
consequently, no culture.., no navigation, nor the
use of commodities that may be imported by sea,
no large buildings, no instruments of moving and
removing such things as require much force, no
knowledge... of the earth, no account of time, no
arts, no letters, no society... {only} continual fear
and danger of violent death.
{And so} the life of man is
solitary, poor, nasty, brutish, and short.“
- Thomas Hobbes, “Leviathan” 1651
Church organization was like
that of an army; you knew your rank
People came together to attend church, to celebrate a wedding
(Pieter Brugal, 1566), to hold court or to hear the Crier’s news
But in the wake of plague...
...Rebirth!
 Depopulation meant that sur-
vivors were more prosperous
 The H. R. E. declined in power
resulting in more local autonomy
 Crusaders began trading instead of
fighting, business booms
 Centers of wealth and power arose
in Florence, Venice, Milan, other
major trading cities
 Arts and scholarship benefited
from texts saved, copied by Islam
I charge you before the Lord to have this letter read to all the
brothers and sisters. - 1Th. 5:27
(Jesus) answered, “Haven’t you read what David did when he and
his companions were hungry?... Or haven’t you read in the Law that
the priests on Sabbath duty in the temple… - Mt. 12:3-5
Jesus said to them, “Have you never read in the Scriptures: “‘The
stone the builders rejected has become the cornerstone…
- Mt. 21:42
But about the resurrection of the dead—have you not read what God
said to you… - Mt. 22:31
After this letter has been read to you, see that it is also read in the
church of the Laodiceans and that you in turn read the letter from
Laodicea. - Co. 4:16
We are commanded to be literate
Notre Dame de Paris 1163-1345
Sunday school in medieval Europe
York Minster 1220-1472 The statues, carvings and stained glass
windows of churches instructed the
illiterate their Biblical history, lives of
the saints, parables and commandments
The greatest literate mind of all time
 He then completed his formal education in Paris
under the direction of Albertus Magnus.
 The most influential Church theologian,
writer and jurist in the Middle Ages (some say
of all time) was born in Aquino, Sicily in 1225
 His uncle was the Abbot of Monte Cassino
 His family intended him, the last of seven
sons, to follow his uncle to the abbey...
 ...so he was educated there until, at age 14,
conflict between Pope and Emperor
disturbed monastery life. He was forced...
 ...to continue studies in Naples under a
Dominican friar who influenced him to join
that Order despite efforts by his parents to
force him to become a Benedictine
Because he was quiet and
didn't speak much, fellow
students thought he was
slow and nicknamed him
the “Dumb Ox”.
 Thomas spent the rest of his life studying,
writing, and teaching at Paris, Cologne, Naples
 He rejected an offer from the Pope to become
(after all!) the Abbot of Monte Cassino despite
his not being a Benedictine.
 He incorporated newly re-discovered Greek
philosophy into Christian theology and read
the great Jewish and Muslim writers....
 ...then put everything into the most formidable
work of Christian thought ever compiled – a
“summary of all theology” (Summa Theologica)
 Declared a “Doctor” of the church (1567)
 Pope Leo XIII stated (in the 1879 encyclical “Aeterni
Patris”) that the Summa was the definitive
exposition of Catholic doctrine.
Thomas Aquinas was no dummy
“It’s impossible for that
which is true by reason
to be contrary to that
which true by faith.”
End of Lesson 4
Challenges and Controversies
in the course of Christian history
Part 1: Formulation and Reformation
Lesson 5: This Changes Everything
Challenges and Controversies
in the course of Christian history
Part 1: Formulation and Reformation
Moving into the 16th century,
things in the Church are coming to a boil
By the year 1500, Western Christianity was in turmoil from scandalous
internal corruption of the hierarchy, the unholy East-West schism, the
horrendous plagues, Dark Ages ignorance and superstition, and the loss
of territory to armies from
the Middle East (Isalm)
and the Far East
(Mongols).
Among these
bad things
one factor
that shaped
events was a
very good thing....
One critical contributing factor was...
...an increased demand for literacy
As Europe recovered from the Black
Death and the Italian Renaissance blos-
somed, demand for literate people to
serve in law, commerce, Church and civil
administration, universities, diplomacy,
and banking surged.
A rags to riches story
 Monks copying manuscripts developed an
important aid to their work, what by 1350
became common: reading glasses.
 Waterpower technology for mines and mills
was adapted to pound rags into linen pulp
for making “rag” paper
 Prosperity and population growth in-
creased the demand for clothing which in
turn generated more rag scrap
 By 1400, paper became less expensive than
parchment; soon after that, 100 times less
expensive.
Churches opened their schools to children whose wealthy parents
wanted them to become part of the new secular economy; this, and
other developments enabled many non-clergy to learn to read:
Paper Making Wine, Oil Pressing Metal Working
Three developing technologies merge
Put them together and what happens? A world-changing event.
This “perfect storm” changes everything
In 1455, in Mainz, Germany, Johann
Gutenberg, the youngest son (b. 1398)
of Else and Friele Gensfleisch zur Laden
(she a shopkeeper, he a merchant)
publishes a Bible.
Not just any Bible, but the Latin Vulgate
printed using a press and robust,
moveable metal type on rag paper*.
From then on, skilled workers and
printing presses converted a single
hand written text to hundreds, even
thousands of neat, readable and in-
expensive copies.
*He also printed copies on parchment.
Gutenberg Bible displayed in the Capitol Rotunda, Washington, DC
1423 Use of engraving on wood, block printing) to produce books.
1436 Gutenberg begins work on a printing press in Strasburg.
1440 Gutenberg completes a press which uses movable metal type.
1444 Returns to Mainz and sets up a printing shop
1448 Gutenberg prints the "Calendar for 1448"
1450 Begins work on a Bible, the first is 40 lines per page.
1452 Gutenberg begins printing the 42-line Bible in two volumes.
1455 First block-printed Bible published in Germany.
1455 Completes work on estimated 200 copies of the Bible
1455 Goes bankrupt. Investor Johann Faust gains control of business
1460 Gutenberg re-establishes printing business with the aid of investor
1461 Albrecht Pfister prints the first illustrated book (woodcuts).
1465 Gutenberg is appointed to the court of Archbishop Adolf of Nassau
1476 200 woodcuts were used in a edition of Aesop's Fables
1476 First use of copper engravings for illustration
1476 William Caxton sets up his printing press in Westminster, England.
Start the presses!
Mass-produced reading material becomes
cheap enough to publish anything – flyers,
brochures, broadsides, and, yes, the news.
What was the first newspaper? The German-
language Relation aller Fürnemmen und ge-
denckwürdigen Historien, (Strasbourg, 1605).
Soon there followed the Avisa (1609) in
Wolfenbüttel. Another early paper, the Dutch
“Corrant out of Italy, Germany, etc.” (1618)
was the first to appear in folio-size, rather
than quarto-size.
Now the news is fit to print
Translated into and published in English, this publication was the first
English-language newspaper (1620) sold anywhere; 1 ½ years later,
the “Weekely Newes” was the first ever published in England.
 Shattered the older oral culture relying entirely on word-of-mouth,
story-telling, stained-glass windows, and memorization
 Caused the copying of manuscripts in monasteries (which
continued for some time) to gradually fade away
 Gave a boost to education in monastery and cathedral schools and
so also to the spread of literacy
 Made Bibles much more available (all in the Latin Vulgate version)
and so many more people read Holy Scripture for themselves
 Enabled agents to raise money for Papacy building programs by
selling mass-printed notes promising the buyer the remittance of
punishment due his sins {indulgences). Gutenberg printed some.
The impact printing had on Christianity
Most importantly, demand also rises for theological and philo-
sophical pamphlets and books. By 1500, some 8 million books of all
kinds are in circulation. The print revolution has prepared Europe
for a more profound revolution: religious reformation.
The bell tolls for the unified Western Church
What does it mean, “to whom the bell tolls”?
...Entire of Itself,
Every man is a piece
of the Continent,
A part of the Main.
If a clod be washed
away by the Sea
Europe is the less.
As well as if a Promontory were,
as well as if a Manor of a friend's or if your own were:
Any man's Death diminishes me because I am involved
in Mankind,
And therefore never send to know for whom the bell tolls;
it tolls for thee.
- John Donne (1572-1631), Devotions Upon Emergent Occasions, #6
This Island’s Mine, Chet Raymo
No man is an island...
Just as a body, though one, has many parts, all its many parts form one
body, so it is with Christ.
For we were all baptized by one Spirit so as to form one body…
Now if the foot should say, “Because I am not a hand, I do not belong to
the body,” it would not for that reason stop being part of the body. And if
the ear should say, “Because I am not an eye, I do not belong to the
body,” it would not for that reason stop being part of the body.
If the whole body were an eye, where would the sense of hearing be? If
the whole body were an ear, where would the sense of smell be?....
But God has put the body together, giving greater honor to the parts that
lacked it, so that there should be no division in the body, but that its
parts should have equal concern for each other.
If one part suffers, every part suffers with it. - 1Cor. 12:12-27
I am involved in mankind
Just as a body, though one, has many parts, all its many parts form one
body, so it is with Christ.
For we were all baptized by one Spirit so as to form one body…
Now if the foot should say, “Because I am not a hand, I do not belong to
the body,” it would not for that reason stop being part of the body. And if
the ear should say, “Because I am not an eye, I do not belong to the
body,” it would not for that reason stop being part of the body.
If the whole body were an eye, where would the sense of hearing be? If
the whole body were an ear, where would the sense of smell be?....
But God has put the body together, giving greater honor to the parts that
lacked it, so that there should be no division in the body, but that its
parts should have equal concern for each other.
If one part suffers, every part suffers with it. - 1Cor. 12:12-27
By 1500, every part suffered
 Though the 14th-16th centuries, the Papacy was the center
of intrigue, lavish spending on building projects, military
maneuvering, and corruption – nepotism, pluralism,
absenteeism, and simony
 From 1309-1377 the “Bishop of Rome” resided in Avignon,
France (residence, below) and took a part in French
politics (there were more French cardinals than Italian).
 Scandal and partisanship racked the Church from 1378-
1414 when 2 men reigned as Pope simultaneously and
their military forces fought each other.
The Church was sick...
...and needed a Doctor
One was at hand in a young (22 yr. old) man who
joined the Augustinian Order in 1505 in Erfurt,
Germany, devoted himself to fasting, prayer, and
frequent confession but suffered from deep
spiritual despair.
In 1508, the Dean of the newly founded University
of Wittenberg sent for him to teach theology
there and continue his own studies, which earned
him his Doctorate in Theology in 1512.
Cries for reform were sounded by many, including English Bible translator
John Wycliffe (1330-1384), Czech reformer/martyr John Hus (1369-1415),
Greek scholar Thomas Linacre (1360-1524), his pupil, Dutch humanist
Erasmus (1466-1536) and English scholar John Colet (1467-1519).
But now, apart from the Law
the righteousness of God has
been made known…
This righteousness is given
through faith in Jesus Christ
to all who believe.
There is no difference
between Jew and Gentile
for all have sinned.
All fall short of the glory of
God and all are justified freely
by his grace through the redemption that came by Christ Jesus.
- Rom. 3:21-24
He came to see this as central
works
status
Where, then, is boasting?
It is excluded. Because of
what law? The law that
requires works? No,
because of the law that
requires faith. For we
maintain that a person is
justified by faith apart from
works of the law. -Rom. 3:27-31
For by grace you have been
saved through faith. This is
not your own doing; it is the
gift of God, not a result of
works, so that no one may
boast.. -Eph. 2:8-9
Adam and Eve (Magdalen College, Oxford University)
Why 1517? Pope Leo X needed cash
 Second son of Lorenzo the Magnificent, ruler of the Florentine
Republic, elevated to the Papacy in 1513
 Needed to finance a costly war that succeeded in securing his
nephew as duke of Urbino, and because he began an extensive
renovation of St Peter's Basilica in Rome
 So, he authorized Johann Tetzel, a Dominican priest, to sell
indulgences in German lands.
 Albert, Archbishop of Mainz, borrowed heavily to pay for his
church rank and was deeply in debt so he agreed to allow the sale
in his territory in exchange for a cut of the proceeds
 Few questioned the practice- it was a “win-win”. People got a
guarantee of forgiveness and the hierarchy got the proceeds.
Pardon my indulgence
Pope Leo X’s reign was noteworthy in that he later only
narrowly escaped a plot by some cardinals to poison him.
Got forgiveness?
Such was the attraction of these “tickets to heaven” that people
in Saxony traveled to other German territories to purchase them.
Some German princes did not go along with
this practice, especially Frederick III, Elector of
Saxony (right, who otherwise supported Leo X
and was almost made HRE).
When the people of Wittenberg came to their priest for the Sacrament
of Confession, they presented their plenary indulgences.
They paid good silver money for their forgiveness! Surely they didn’t
need to repent of their sins or perform onerous penance!
But one of their professors, that troubled Augustinian monk (now 34),
Dr. Martin Luther, a man who overcame a spiritual struggle to under-
stand the Good News of freely-given grace, was outraged that they
had paid money for what was theirs as an unearned gift from God.
He felt compelled to expose the fraud stripping $$ from pious people
and so announced a debate on whether or not indulgences had the
spiritual value that Church agents claimed.
The (true?) story- that he posted a set of 95 theological propositions
(“theses” for university academics and other interested persons to use as
discussion points) for all to see on the Wittenberg Univ. church door.
Pennies for Penance
This is necessary
The first and chief article is this:
Jesus Christ, our God and Lord,
died for our sins and was raised
again for our justification.
All have sinned and are justified
freely, without their own works
and merits, by His grace, through
the redemption that is in Christ
Jesus…
This is necessary to believe. This cannot be otherwise acquired
or grasped by any work, law or merit. Therefore, it is clear and
certain that this faith alone justifies us ...
Nothing of this article can be yielded or surrendered, even
though heaven and earth and everything else falls.
– Martin Luther, Smalcald Articles
Luther burns the Bull publically (above). But what will the Emperor do?
What will the German princes do? When in doubt, call a meeting!
Specifically, a ”Diet” or Imperial conference of the Emperor and all the
princes, to meet in the city of Worms in 1521
Frederick the Wise obtains a safe conduct for Luther (guess what? It
wasn’t safe!)
This is necessary
1520 Pope Leo issues a Bull accusing
Luther of teaching serious errors.
But by that time 300,000 copies of
his 95 theses are in print.
“Printing is the best of God’s invent-
tions”, Luther says.
Augustinian monks rally to his cause
(against the Dominicans).
Will the Emperor force the theologian
to eat crow at the Diet of Worms?
Luther at the Diet of Worms by Anton von Werner, 1877
“God help me! Amen.”
 When Luther appears before the Diet, they demand that he recant
all his works (no options- this is not a debate!)
 NB: back then there was no such thing as “freedom of religion.”
 He must recant or else he will be opposing his Church (the Body of
Christ!) and his Emperor (whose authority comes from God)
 His answer:
“My conscience is a prisoner of God’s Word. I cannot
and will not recant, for to disobey one’s conscience is
neither just nor safe. God help me. Amen”
 The Diet returns this edict: “Luther is a convicted heretic… no one
shall give him shelter…his books to be erased from human memory”
 But by the time this condemnation was published, Luther had
vanished. Almost everyone thought he had been “eliminated.”
Luther remained in hiding for a year and spent his time in prayer
and in translating the Bible into German, a version still in use today.
Amazingly he wasn’t.
Instead his Elector
wished him away to
the Wartburg, a
castle in Eisenach.
What do you think?
Was Luther right to obey the dictates of his own inner voice (conscience)
and disobey direct orders of the ruler of his country and the head of his
church? Why or why not? On what basis ? Legally? Morally? Spiritually?
Under what circumstances might you do the same today?
Should there be consequences (physical, legal, etc.) that result for you
in following your inner convictions? Must the State or the Church allow
you to express them freely?
If the latter, do you agree that
everyone should have the same
right of religious freedom, even
those you don’t agree with, may-
be atheists, Rosicrucians, pagans,
Satan-worshippers, or Muslims?
Was Luther right to defy the Emperor?
Martin Luther and Philipp Melanchthon
(by Lucas Cranach the Elder)
A person is bound to follow his conscience that he may come to God, the
end and purpose of life.... It follows that he is not to be forced to act in a
manner contrary to his conscience... nor... be restrained from acting in
accordance with his conscience, especially in matters religious. ... the
exercise of religion, of its very nature, consists... in those internal and free
acts whereby people set the course of their life toward God.
No human power can either command or prohibit acts of this kind....
Injury is done to the person and to the order established by God for human
life, if free exercise of religion is denied in society...
Religious acts whereby people... direct their lives to God transcend by
their very nature the order of terrestrial and temporal affairs....
However, it {government} would clearly transgress the limits set to its
power, were it to presume to command or inhibit religious acts.
Religious freedom is good, says the Pope
“Declaration on Religious Freedom on the Right of the Person and of Communities
to Social and Civil Freedom in Matters Religious” - Pope Paul VI (1965)
End of Lesson 5
Challenges and Controversies
in the course of Christian history
Part 1: Formulation and Reformation
Lesson 6: Division and Diversity
Challenges and Controversies
in the course of Christian history
Part 1: Formulation and Reformation
Post-1521, the church took on the look…
…of a club, a volunteer organization, or...
Army
• Rigid, formal organization
(units, divisions, etc.)
• Top-down rule...
• ...by appointed officers...
• ...who give orders...
• ...that must be obeyed
• Many regulations
• Individuals do not take initiative
themselves
• Individuals cannot leave freely
(AWOL, desertion)
• Some were forced into the
organization (e.g. drafted)
Club
• Organized loosely
• Ruled democratically
• Decisions are often made by
consensus agreement...
• ...influenced by interested,
passionate members who...
• ...persuade, not order
• There are rules, but few
• Everyone can contribute
• Everyone can join/leave at will
• People are there because they
want to help
Extended Family
• Relationships clear (parent,
uncle, niece, etc.), not
democratic but...
• Who holds power, gives orders
can be informal, undefined
• Few formal rules, some dictated
by family traditions
• Orders taken seriously, but not
always obeyed
• People are practically born into
it (member by infant baptism)...
• ...and trained mostly by elder’s
example
• Spontaneity, creativity, play
…even ,of a family
Army
• Rigid, formal organization
(units, divisions, etc.)
• Top-down rule...
• ...by appointed officers...
• ...who give orders...
• ...that must be obeyed
• Many regulations
• Individuals do not take initiative
themselves
• Individuals cannot leave freely
(AWOL, desertion)
• Some were forced into the
organization (e.g. drafted)
In England, Christianity’s future…
1501 Arthur, Prince of Wales, first-in-line to
succeed Henry VII as King of England, weds
Catherine, daughter of King Ferdinand & Queen
Isabella of allied Spain. Both are only 15 yrs old.
1502 Just after returning to Ludlow Castle in
Wales, both become seriously ill. Arthur dies.
Catherine recovers; goes to live in a royal palace.
To maintain strong ties with Spain, Henry and
Isabella sign a treaty to betroth his other son (also
Henry, only 9 yrs old) to Catherine. It is prohibited
by Canon Law, so he petitions the Pope for an an-
nulment of her previous marriage (to Arthur).
1503 Pope Julius II grants the annulment , leaving the way clear for the
widow to wed the new Prince, once he comes of age, which they do in
1509, although the legality of the marriage remains in some doubt.
…Hangs on the birth of a male heir
1509 Henry becomes King of England. He is the
very model of an observant and pious Catholic
1516 After a stillbirth, the death of her 1st child (at
7 weeks) and a miscarriage, Catherine finally gives
birth to a healthy girl, Mary.
1521 Henry, with the help of his
devout Catholic advisor, Thomas
More, issues a ringing defense
of the Church against the teach-
ings of Martin Luther
1527 Henry, increasingly impa-
tient for Catherine to give him and the Kingdom a
male heir to the throne and enamored by another
woman, Anne Boleyn (right), seeks a divorce from
Catherine claiming that they were never really married.
Schism follows divorce
1534 Parliament passes the
Act of Supremacy, “recogni-
zing” that Henry, as King of
England, possesses “Royal
Supremacy”, meaning he,
not the Pope, is head of the
Church in England.
1529 Pope Clement IV declines to act on Henry’s request, influenced
by opposition of the Emperor who happens to be Catherine’s nephew.
* Except for Anne who is beheaded after suffering three miscarri-
ages trying to give Henry a son and earning the charge of treason.
1533 Henry marries Anne; the Archbishop of Canterbury declares
the marriage valid and nullifies the former one with Catherine. The
Pope excommunicates Henry and the archbishop. Anne has a baby
(the future Queen Elizabeth) and everyone lives happily…....*
Challenges and Controversies in Christian History
Challenges and Controversies in Christian History
Challenges and Controversies in Christian History
Challenges and Controversies in Christian History
Challenges and Controversies in Christian History
Challenges and Controversies in Christian History
Challenges and Controversies in Christian History
Challenges and Controversies in Christian History
Challenges and Controversies in Christian History
Challenges and Controversies in Christian History
Challenges and Controversies in Christian History
Challenges and Controversies in Christian History
Challenges and Controversies in Christian History
Challenges and Controversies in Christian History
Challenges and Controversies in Christian History
Challenges and Controversies in Christian History
Challenges and Controversies in Christian History
Challenges and Controversies in Christian History
Challenges and Controversies in Christian History
Challenges and Controversies in Christian History
Challenges and Controversies in Christian History

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Challenges and Controversies in Christian History

  • 1. A “Lessons-To-Go” study by Mark S. Pavlin Topics of critical importance to the history of Christianity Challenges and Controversies in the course of Christian history
  • 2. Challenges and Controversies in the course of Christian history Part 1 Formulation and Reformation
  • 3. The church's one foundation is Jesus Christ her Lord; she is his new creation by water and the word.... Elect from every nation yet one o'er all the earth, her charter of salvation: one Lord, one faith, one birth; one holy Name she blesses, partakes one holy food, and to one hope she presses, with every grace endued. Though with a scornful wonder men see her sore oppressed, by schisms rent asunder, by heresies distressed... Amid toil and tribulation and tumult of her war, she waits the consummation of peace for evermore until with the vision glorious her longing eyes are blest, and the great church victorious shall be the church at rest.
  • 4. It is a plaintive cry for an end to the bitter arguing, fighting and dividing that marred the history of Christianity and that by the time of the poem’s composition in the 1860’s was long evident to people everywhere. “The Church's One Foundation” was composed by English poet Samuel John Stone, a priest in the Church of England, as a response to division in the Church of South Africa caused by teachings of the Bishop of Natal, John W. Colenso. Why, if the Church has one Foundation, one Lord, etc., are there so many different kinds (denominations)? So many separate “parts”? What were the controversies that led to these schisms? Were they a recent development? Did they occur in the early history of the Church? Can they re-unite?
  • 5. Lesson 1: Getting Belief Right Challenges and Controversies in the course of Christian history Part 1: Formulation and Reformation
  • 6. “Her Charter of Salvation” What Christians believe Many branches of Christianity recite a statement of the core beliefs they hold in common entitled “The Nicene Creed.” This lesson is about its form- ulation amidst turbulent times of persecution, war and con- troversy in the Roman Empire of the 4th century.
  • 7. Many Christians contend that four Gospel accounts of the life, death and teachings of a Jewish man of the 1st century AD, named Jesus of Nazareth, are primary canonical (“ruling” or “normative”) sources of their Church’s beliefs (dogma). Gospels and Epistles rule The Gospels are, in fact, the only sources of any information about the life of Jesus.* *Brief mention of Jesus in the voluminous writings of the Jewish- Roman historian Josephus is a possible (and controversial) exception.
  • 8. Gospels and Epistles rule Epistles (letters) written after his death by his disciple, Paul of Tarsus and others* that expound on the spiritual meaning of the events in the life of Jesus are a second source of the “right” Christian beliefs and practices. *Attributed to Paul or the Apostles Peter, James, or John but now generally recognized to be pseudonymous works of later writers.
  • 9. The New Testament (NT) accounts tell us that Jesus was....  Born to parents from a rural Judean village (our best guess ca. 4 BC), a distant descendant of King David; by upbringing an devout Jew  By training, a craftsman; by avocation a holy man with remarkable ability to heal diseases, even rebuke evil spirits and raise the dead  A preacher of repentance for sin yet, unlike other rabbis, teaching as one with authority, but not a writer (he was probably illiterate)  An apocalyptic prophet referring to himself as “Son of Man” (as in the OT Book of Daniel), announcing the restoration of Israel by God  Not an organizer of a new sect of Judaism or religious order  Executed about the year AD 30 by Roman officials but then (a core proclamation of the NT) brought to life again by God. Since Jesus wasn’t the founder of the Christian religion, who was? Who formulated its beliefs and practices? Who was Jesus?
  • 10. What did early believers believe? Jesus taught, and his followers held with conviction, that there is one and only one God*, as pro- claimed by generations of their Jewish forbearers: “... you shall have no other gods before me” - Ex. 20:3 “Worship the Lord your God and serve Him only.” - Mt.4:10 “Love the Lord your God with all your heart and with all your soul and with all your strength and with all your mind’ - Lk. 10:27 *The term “trinity” does not appear in Scripture or in any Christian texts until ca. AD 212 in works by the Christian writer, Tertullian
  • 11.  ... Jesus lived as many did in that day, experiencing work, poverty, joy and pain as did all people. He died, shame- fully so, executed by the Roman authorities at the request of the Jewish leaders.  ... But God raised him to life again, thus “defeating death” and winning for all God’s favor (grace), for all time. “Who- ever believes in him will not be put to shame.” (1Pe. 2:6)  ... God is still with us, present as His Holy Spirit, instilling faith in people, guiding their thoughts and strengthening them for action  ... One such action was (according to one account, Mt. 28:19) to “...go and make disciples... baptizing them in the name of the Father and of the Son and of the Holy Spirit…” What did early believers believe? His earliest followers began proclaiming something more with equal passion and conviction, that the man Jesus was the Jewish “Messiah” (Greek “Christ”) who was now redeemer and Lord; that...
  • 12. The Book of Acts tells of the earliest days of the followers of Jesus, not yet an organization that has diverged from Judaism, in which Paul of Tarsus is the most influential figure. Acts adds detail While the Gospels tell of the activities of Jesus and his training of 12 special disciples (apostles) these accounts, written years after the events, only hint at setting up an organization with new leaders, rules, rituals, and, critically, beliefs. What is told in Acts about the spread of “The Way” is the subject of a 3-part “Lessons-to-Go” study, “The Missionary Journeys of St. Paul.” But Acts aside, historical information is scanty about how the new movement, later a religion named “Christianity”, got organized.
  • 13. Shrouded in the mists of time There is uncertainty about the course of Christianity in its earliest period because even the earliest extant “witnesses“ were written well after the events, are often legendary in tone, and were not “historical” in the modern sense. Instead they were “kerygma” (proclamation) of “Good News” about Jesus and his apocalyptic (coming soon) Kingdom. Scholars since the 19th century, using what is labelled the “historical- critical” method, have analyzed the NT thoroughly to reconstruct events that led to the divergence of Christianity from Judaism. In aid of this effort are sources such as non-canonical Gospels and Acts, the writings of the Jewish-Roman historian Josephus, the writings of the so-called Apostolic Fathers of the early 2nd century, and early text fragments by others quoted by Eusebius in his Church History. The new faith separated from Judaism as teachings about Jesus became much more important than the teaching of Jesus.
  • 14. Shrouded in the mists of time There is uncertainty about the course of Christianity in its earliest period because even the earliest extant “witnesses“ were written well after the events, are often legendary in tone, and were not “historical” in the modern sense. Instead they were “kerygma” (proclamation) of “Good News” about Jesus and his apocalyptic (coming soon) Kingdom. Scholars since the 19th century, using what is labelled the “historical- critical” method, have analyzed the NT thoroughly to reconstruct events that led to the divergence of Christianity from Judaism. In aid of this effort are sources such as non-canonical Gospels and Acts, the writings of the Jewish-Roman historian Josephus, the writings of the so-called Apostolic Fathers of the early 2nd century, and early text fragments by others quoted by Eusebius in his Church History. The new faith separated from Judaism as teachings about Jesus became much more important than the teaching of Jesus.
  • 15. A diversity of teachings Adoptionism Apollinarianism Arianism Donatism Ebionites Gnosticism Marcionism Modalism Monophysitism Montanism Nestorianism Novatianism Pelagianism Sabellianism Subordinationism Valentinianism Early spread of “The Way” was done in an “ad hoc: fashion, with no organization, no central guidance. In consequence, many divergent teachings about Jesus sprang up in the first 300 years after Christ (whose study deserves an entire course). Suffice it to name here a few of the major variant “pre-orthodox” or heterodox teachings:
  • 16. What about persecution? For ca. 300 yrs after Jesus Christianity was not illegal in the Roman Empire; people were not jailed for being Christians, the impression given by a few NT passages and exaggerated sermons and stories about the early Church; it did, however, inhibit the free exchange of theological speculation. What was illegal was refusal to worship the god the government said you must worship, usually the current Emperor. The penalty for refus- ing to do so was often execution. For the most part, persecutions were sporadic, local, isolated, and brief. Christianity spread as neighbors shared their new faith and acted on it, with mutual assistance, aid for the poor, care for the sick, and burial for the dead. Reconstruction of the Pantheon, Rome
  • 17. By the year AD 300, the new faith was widespread in the Empire. Its adherents, perhaps 5% of the population, were numerous enough to cause concern among local officials suspicious of secret assemblies and by military officers upset by the refusal of some to serve in the army. Starting in AD 303, Emperor Diocletian, egged on by his “vice-emperor”, Galerius, carried out the most cruel and intense persecution the faith was ever to endure. In Gaul and Iberia, however, the other vice-emperor, Constantius, and his son Constantine, did not go along, opposing Galerius. One last great persecution
  • 18. The terror ended abruptly on April 30, 311 when Emperor Galerius, suffering from a painful illness, issued an “edict of toleration” for all Christians in return for their prayers for his health. He died 5 days later. Providence intervenes in history? Some Christians said God struck him down for his many sins. Emperor-wanna-be’s (Licinius, Maximinus Dias, Maxentius, and Constantine, right) took control of various parts of the Empire and then fought for control of the whole. Constantine struck first, aggressively launching his army from Gaul across the Alps and toward Rome against Maxentius....
  • 19. He later told a strange and wonderful story recorded by his admirer, the church historian, Bishop Eusebius of Caesarea; claiming... ... that the God of the Christians gave his army victory in the critical Battle of the Milvian Bridge, telling him in a vision to put a certain symbol on his banners, and assuring him that he would “In this sign conquer”, referring to the chi-rho symbol: Providence intervenes in history? He then made peace with Licinius who in turn fought Maximinius Dias... by the year 322, Constantine was sole ruler over the entire Empire. And so he granted Christians favors, built churches and elevated Christian bishops to status in court. By the end of the century Christianity was not just favored in the Roman Empire, it was the official religion. Paganism was outlawed!
  • 20. The divergent beliefs of and different rituals practiced by various groups claiming to be followers of Jesus had never been resolved Judaisers insisted that Gentile converts must obey Jewish Torah laws (recall that the Apostle Paul had railed against them) Followers of Marcion held that there were two Gods, repudiating the evil God of the OT and worshipping the loving God of the NT Gnostics claimed to have secret knowledge of salvation that Jesus taught to only a few hand-picked disciples Led by Bishop Donatus of Carthage, Christians who were steadfast in the face of persecution resented and opposed re-instatement of any who renounced their faith or fled to avoid torture or death. But as Constantine consolidated his power, one theological question above all others threatened to tear the Church apart. Yet all is not well in Christendom
  • 21. Is Jesus truly God? Was Jesus Christ a really holy man God “promoted” to a position of power? Or maybe he was God in a human disguise. Or was he a kind of super- angel or a lesser god? Or was he GOD? This last position was taken by many devout people but was hard (theologically) to defend. If there were two Gods, were they equal in status and power? Or was Jesus God but a “lesser” God who served the Father as do angels? What was the correct belief, the orthodox doctrine? (and who decides?)
  • 22. Not heresy - yet  At that time, no one knew which position was “right” – what we now call orthodox was then “proto-orthodox”  In fact, there was no “overall” Church authority to declare what was “right” – no Supreme Leader or Supreme Court  Each Bishop was the authority over his own “see”*  Many could not reconcile theological disagreement/dispute with the “guidance into all truth” by the Holy Spirit  The Church was in the throes of a potential schism over this issue – with consequences for the stability of the Empire itself. If an issue arose among, say, United Methodists today, how can that issue resolved? Who is “the authority”? *The word see is from the Latin sedes, which refers to the seat of a bishop, the symbol of the his authority.
  • 23. Some Scripture passages suggest that Jesus was a human being of exceptional faith and holiness who God used in a mighty way for His purposes. Someone like Abraham, Moses, Ruth, David, Isaiah, Ester, Deborah, and John the Baptist. But Jesus was so exceptional that God “adopted” him as His son at his baptism. After his selfless death, God rewarded him with life and installed him at His Right Hand to reign with Him. Now we, too, can be adopted as children of God. Was Jesus adopted? “You are my son whom I love, with you I am well pleased” - Lk. 3:22 “In love {God} predestined us for adoption to Himself as His sons through Jesus Christ...”
  • 24. Modalism “solves” the paradox of 1 God, 3 Persons in a common sense way. It declares that there is one God but when people encoun- tered Him they had different interactions with and perceptions of Him. As Father Creator (Yahweh) in the past.... As the Rabbi Jesus in Galilee of the 1st century.... As a Holy Spirit of wisdom and power in dreams, miracles, inspired Scripture and prophecy. All of these are “modes” of the One acting in history. God (there is only one) has three different ways of being. When He is operating as one of these, He cannot simultaneously have the appearance and attri- butes of the other two. Is “Jesus” 1 of 3 “faces” of God?
  • 25. Docetism is like modalism except that “Jesus” is merely a human shell or cover which the One God “puts on” (and later abandons) in order to appear on earth as a human being. He did not become a human being, He just looked like one. There are lots of possible analogies in 20th century sci-fi movies. This explains the enigmatic words of Jesus from the cross: This view is supported by Paul in his letter to the Philippians: Was “Jesus” a disguise God put on? “Christ Jesus, being in very nature God… made himself nothing, taking the very nature of a servant, being made in human likeness, being found in the appearance as a man, humbled himself…” – Phil 2:6-11 ... Jesus cried out with a loud voice, saying, “Eli, Eli, lema sabachthani?” that is, “My God, my God, why have you forsaken me?” – Mt. 27:46
  • 26. Jesus is fully Divine, one of three Gods of equal status and power, each of which has a unique personality and sphere of responsibility and cooper- ates perfectly with the other two. His “assignment” or “work” was to come to Earth as a human and die on the cross to save mankind from sin. Some early church writers sounded like they endorsed this position: “We acknowledge a God, a Son, and a Holy Spirit, united in essence.” -Athenagoras “The three days {of creation} that were before the luminaries are types of the Triad of God, His Word, and His Wisdom.” – Theophilus Simple! Jesus is one of three Gods It is the Father who anoints, it is the Son who is anointed by the Spirit; the Spirit is the oil of anointing.” – Irenaeus
  • 27. first and most be- loved of creation, existing before all ages of the earth, made to be co- ruler and co- creator with God, not quite equal in status with the Father, a kind of super-angel. Arius (AD 256-336) was or- dained a presbyter in AD 311. Virtually all his theological works were suppressed and, so, lost. Despite concerted opposition, Arian Christian churches persisted through- out Europe and N. Africa, and in Gothic and Germanic king- doms, until abandoned after military conquest or royal decree in the 5th-7th centuries. “There was [a time] when he [the Logos] was not” – Arius of Alexandria Not so simple: Arianism There is only one Supreme Almighty God (the Father) who created Jesus as fully Divine, the
  • 28. The Council  The Emperor first appealed to key church leaders (the bishops) to resolve their differences amicably  But he was not a man to wait for long  When no agreement was forthcoming, he ordered the disputing parties gather to debate and resolve the conflict  And so occurred a great Council of bishops (318 in all) who traveled to Nicea* at government expense  Most were from rural sees, with little formal education, confused by the nuances of the controversy and over- awed by the attention of the Emperor. * Not far to the south of Constantinople (today, Istanbul, Turkey), the newly constructed capital city of the Empire,
  • 29. The Arian faction appealed to Eusebius, Bishop of Caesarea (the historian) to submit one with more acceptable wording. His formulation, already in use in his diocese, included this about Jesus, that he was: “God of God, light of light, life of life, the only begotten Son, first-born of all creation, begotten of the Father before all ages, by whom all things were made” The debate Constantine himself opened the Council in AD 325 with a keynote speech that amounted to a warning: get this done or else! Eusebius, Bishop, Nicomedia, an Arian, got everyone’s attention by boldly and confidently submitting a proposal that gave deity to Christ but denied him status equal to that of the Father. It was sounded defeated.
  • 30. The Emperor said he liked it.
  • 31. The decision Not surprisingly, almost every else present agreed with Constantine that it had potential. So, Christ Jesus was not created by the Father from nothing at some point in time (the Arian position) but was, rather, begotten from the same “stuff” (ousia, substance) as the Father, from eternity. After some wordsmithing and the addition at the end of “anathemas” (condemnations) of Arian catch-phrases, the statement received overwhelming support. Almost all of the bishops signed it; the two who did not were (no surprise!) excommunicated. The approved statement is the earliest version of what we call the Nicene Creed. The more familiar version was the result of further editing done in 381 at another great council (of Constantinople). The following slide is a comparison of these versions.
  • 32. We believe in one God, the Father Almighty, Maker of all things visible and invisible. We believe in one God, the Father Almighty, Maker of heaven and earth, and of all things visible and invisible. And in one Lord Jesus Christ, the Son of God, begotten of the Father the only- begotten; that is, of the essence of the Father, God of God, Light of Light, very God of very God, begotten, not made, being of one substance with the Father; And in one Lord Jesus Christ, the only-begotten Son of God, begotten of the Father before all worlds, Light of Light, very God of very God, begotten, not made, being of one substance with the Father; By whom all things were made both in heaven and on earth; by whom all things were made; Who for us men, and for our salvation, came down and was incarnate and was made man; who for us men, and for our salvation, came down from heaven, and was incarnate by the Holy Ghost of the Virgin Mary, and was made man; He suffered, and the third day he rose again, ascended into heaven; he was crucified for us under Pontius Pilate, and suffered, and was buried, and the third day he rose again, according to the Scriptures, and ascended into heaven, and sits on the right hand of the Father; From thence he shall come to judge the living and the dead. from thence he shall come again, with glory, to judge the living and the dead; And in the Holy Ghost. whose kingdom shall have no end.
  • 33. This heavy-handed approach to crafting “right doctrine” failed. The proverbial dust did not settle for hundreds of years. When, 85 years later, Visigoths led by Alaric sacked Rome (AD 410), the “barbarian” raiders were Christians, Arian Christians. The sack was a huge shock to contemporaries. By then, Rome was no longer the capital of the western part of the Roman Empire. Nevertheless, as "the eternal city“ it retained an important position, especially as the spiritual center of the Empire. Even more power and influence shifted to the seat of government in the East, at Constantinople. Legacy Today, many Christians recite the ancient Creed without a thought. If questioned at an unguarded moment however, they might espouse Docetic, Modalist or Arian beliefs. Old heresies never die!
  • 34. Why can’t we explain the Trinity? St. Patrick used a shamrock, a poor model for Trinity, as are all simplified pictures that try to be helpful. Big problem areas for any explanation are: (1) Everything familiar to us, useful as an illustration, is a thing (matter/energy) that exists in space and time. But God is not a thing (He is uncreated) and He “is” beyond the bounds of space/time (which He created). (2) Humans are limited in knowledge, understanding partially even familiar things, limited to that which our senses take in (even amplified by devices and probes) and to what our reasoning and imagination can reach; (3) And all (verbal/written) explanations consist of words in a language, words with many possible meanings.
  • 35. Why can’t we explain the Trinity? St. Patrick used a shamrock, a poor model for Trinity, as are all simplified pictures that try to be helpful. Big problem areas for any explanation are: (1) Everything familiar to us, useful as an illustration, is a thing (matter/energy) that exists in space and time. But God is not a thing (He is uncreated) and He “is” beyond the bounds of space/time (which He created). (2) Humans are limited in knowledge, understanding partially even familiar things, limited to that which our senses take in (even amplified by devices and probes) and our reasoning and imagin- ation can reach; (3) And all (verbal/written) explanations consist of words in a language, words with many possible meanings. “The language of religion and of theology abounds in modes of discourse in which language has been stretched beyond its normal usages. We would utterly misunderstand such language if we took it in its literal sense as if it referred in a straight- forward way... Religious and theological language is… “mythological”, “symbolical”, “analogical”, “paradoxical”, or whatever it may be.” - John Macquarrie
  • 36. Theology ever renewed And it will be difficult because it will try to express the basis of Christian faith, a faith that from earliest times spoke of Jesus as the “Son” born of the “Spirit”, the incarnate “Word” of the “Father.” Wow! How we talk about our faith, our relationship with God, and what it means to us and to our fellow believers, all of this is theology. Because language, our society, and our world view changes over time, theology must be renewed and refreshed in each generation. Everyone can learn to re-tell the Good News. But we must work to get the story “right”, spoken of the best way we can manage even if the language is difficult.
  • 37. End of Lesson 1 Challenges and Controversies in the course of Christian history Part 1: Formulation and Reformation
  • 38. Lesson 2: Saving Souls and Civilization Challenges and Controversies in the course of Christian history Part 1: Formulation and Reformation
  • 39. Previously The Roman Emperor Constantine favors the new religion, Christianity.... So many people want to be baptized that the lengthy period for instruction in the Faith is curtailed... Acrimonious squabbling among Church leaders threatens unity... So in AD 325 he brings together a Council... Bishops debate and “settle” the tricky theological question of the nature of God (One, yet Trinity)... then keep fighting with increasing worldly wealth & political power... Some Christians crave a simpler, holier life following Jesus.
  • 40. What does it mean to follow Christ? As government-sanctioned Church institutions grew in political power and wealth, a few people saw such developments as contrary to the call of Christ to a life of self-denial, frequent prayer and service. The cave of St. Benedict, Subiaco, Italy In response, they pio- neered a way of life that saved souls and, in time to a signifi- cant degree, Western civilization itself.
  • 41. Following Jesus {Jesus said}… “Seek first his kingdom and his righteousness and all these things will be given to you also...” - Mt. 6:33-34 Jesus {said to the Pharisees}..., “Whoever follows me will not walk in darkness, but will have the light of life.” - Jn. 8:12-13 Jesus... was led by the Spirit into the wilderness... he was tempted by the devil. He ate nothing during those days... - Lk. 4:1-2 Jesus... said to him, “You lack one thing: go, sell all that you have and give to the poor... and come, follow me.” - Mk. 10:21
  • 42.  Born in Koma, Lower Egypt, ca. 251 (d. 356)  Biography of Anthony's life by Athanasius of Alexandria spread the concept of monasticism  From monachos, “solitary” from “mono” (one)  Referred to as the first monk, but as his own bio makes clear, there were ascetics before him  Anthony was, however, the first ascetic to go live in the desert, which contributed to his renown  Accounts of Anthony enduring supernatural temptation during his time in the Libyan wild- erness is an often-repeated subject in Western art and literature  Emperor Constantine’s support of Christianity greatly expanded the ranks of those willing and able to retreat into solitude. Anthony, desert Father
  • 43.  The Essenes, a sect of Judaism that flourished from the 2nd century BC-1st century AD, set the precedent for seeking ascetic holiness  Members lived in cities but congregated in for communal life in Qumran, in the Judean desert near the Dead Sea  Not mentioned in the NT; likely many fewer in number than the Pharisees and Sadducees  Dedicated to a disciplined life of poverty, ritual wash- ings, renunciation of world- ly pleasures, and celibacy  Scholars think they com- piled the texts that com- prise the Dead Sea Scrolls Christians were not the first to retreat
  • 44.  Born AD 480, son of a Roman noble of Nursia (modern Norcia), in Umbria, Italy; had a twin sister, Scholastica  While studying classic literature, he came to see his life and that of his friends as dissolute and immoral  Left all to be a hermit at Subiaco for three years; gaining a reputa- tion for holiness so much so that...  ...on the death of the head of a nearby monas- tery, the monks there beg him to take charge  He agreed but his leadership was too strict for them so they tried to poison him (he lived).  He went on to found 12 monasteries and then the great monastery of Monte Cassino  He had no intention of founding an order. To this day, Benedictine abbeys are independent. Benedict of Nursia
  • 45. • The Rule of Saint Benedict was a book of precepts to order and guide the communal life of Benedictine monks • Demanded firm discipline, poverty, and chastity, but not harsh asceticism • It set eight regular hours of prayer (Matins, Lauds, Prime, Terce, etc.) • Demanded willing, prompt obedience to the monastery head, the Abbot. • In use for 1500 years as normative for Western Christian monasticism • It’s spirit is the traditional motto ora et labora ("pray and work") • Adopted since the 7th century by communities of women (convents). One Rule to rule them all
  • 46. Let us do {this}: “I will take heed of my ways, that I sin not with my tongue: I have set a guard to my mouth, I was dumb, and was humbled, and kept silence even from good things" (Ps 39:1-3). Therefore... let permission to speak be seldom given… even for good and holy and edifying discourse, for it is written: "In much talk you will not escape sin" (Prov. 10:19). And elsewhere: "Death and life are in the power of the tongue" (Prov. 18:21). For it belongs to the master to speak and to teach, the disciple to be silent and to listen. If, therefore, anything must be asked of the Superior, let it be asked with all humility and respectful submission. We condemn jests and idle words or speech provoking laughter. CHAPTER VI Of Silence Benedict’s rule on silence
  • 47. CHAPTER XX Of Reverence at Prayer We approach those in power with humility and reverence when we wish to ask a favor; how much must we beseech the Lord God with Benedict’s rule on prayer all humility and purity of devotion? And let us be assured that it is not in many words, but in the purity of heart and tears of compunction that we are heard. For this reason prayer ought to be short and pure, unless, perhaps lengthened by the inspiration of divine grace. At the community exercises, let the prayer always be short. (!)
  • 48. The penultimate rule CHAPTER LXXII Of the Virtuous Zeal Which Monks Ought to Have There is a virtuous zeal which separates one from vice and leads to God and life everlasting. Let the monks practice this zeal with most ardent love; namely, that in honor they forerun one another (Rom 12:10). Let them bear their infirmities, whether of body or mind, with the utmost patience; let them vie with one another in obedience. Let no one follow what he thinks useful to himself, but rather to another. Let them practice fraternal charity with a chaste love. Let them fear God and love their Abbot... Let them prefer nothing whatever to Christ, and my He lead us all together to life everlasting.
  • 49. A rule of reason  Compared to other precepts, the Rule provided a way to curb extremes of individ- ual ascetic zeal and strict institutionalism  Because of this middle ground it was widely popular and was adopted by many newly- founded religious Orders.  It addressed spiritual and physical needs of people living in community while: a. Establishing and maintaining order b. Fostering an understanding of people as relational, interdependent beings c. Providing less mature monks with mentors to support and strengthen them as they developed their own ascetic practices and spiritual growth to become like Christ.
  • 50. Methodists also have rules  In 1729, at Oxford, members of a what was named “the Holy Club” were called Methodists because they practiced methods of holiness.  John Wesley taught that “a Methodist is one that lives according to the method laid down in the Bible... to Christian perfection”  WWJD? “Whenever you are to do an action, consider how God did or would do the like, and do you imitate His example.” JW’s General Rules as to Intention 1. In every act reflect on the end. 2. Begin every action in the name of the Father, Son and Holy Ghost. 3. Begin important work with prayer. 4. Do not leave off a duty because you are tempted to do so.
  • 51. Wesley’s method like Benedict’s Rule? General Rules for employing time (from the diary of John Wesley) 1. Begin and end every day with God - sleep not immoderately 2. Be diligent in your calling. 3. Employ all spare hours in religion, as able. 4. And all holidays (holy days). 5. Avoid drunkards and busybodies. 6. Avoid curiosity and all useless employments and knowledge. 7. Examine yourself every night. 8. Never pass a day without setting aside at least 1 hour for devotion 9. Avoid all manner of passion.
  • 52. Monasteries and abbeys come in many shapes and sizes
  • 57. Glendalough, Ireland (ruins), one of the most important Irish monasteries, founded by St. Kevin in the 6th century
  • 58. Eberbach Monestery, near Mainz, Germany
  • 61. Monte Cassino (inset, right, after Allied bombing in WW2)
  • 62. 1-7. Church 8. Cloister 9. Garden 11. Dormitory 13. Sacristy 14. Library 15. Chapter House 16. Necessarium 17. Water supply 12,19. Night Stair 20. Kitchen 21. Dining Rm. 22. Warming Rm. Typical monastery layout
  • 63. Hildegard of Bingen  A Benedictine abbess, she founded a dozen monasteries  She wrote theological, botanical and medicinal texts, letters, songs, and poems  One of her works, the Ordo Virtutum, is an early example of liturgical drama, arguably the oldest extant morality play  She supervised the creation of brilliant miniature illuminations  Pope Benedict XVI named her a Doctor of the Church in 2012. German writer, composer, philosopher, visionary (1098-1179)
  • 64. Brother Cadfael (pronounced cad-vile) is a Benedictine monk of Shrewsbury Monastery, on the Welsh border of western England in the 12th century, the protagonist in a series of 20 murder mysteries written between 1977-1994 by linguist-scholar Edith Pargeter under the name "Ellis Peters". These stories draw you into the daily life of a typical English monastic community while re-imagining the time referred to as “the Anarchy” when two contenders, King Stephen and the Empress Maud, fought each other for the crown of England. Cadfael is a skillful observer of human nature, inquisitive by nature, energetic, a talented herbalist with a sense of justice and fair-play. His Abbot calls on him often to act as medical examiner, sleuth, and diplomat. Also 13 TV episodes on “Mystery” 1994-1998 starring Sir Derek Jacobi Experience monastery life
  • 65. Brother Cadfael’s monastery is marked today by the Abbey Church of St. Peter and St. Paul, which still stands by the River Severn in Shrewsbury, England.
  • 66.  About 970 AD, St. Dunstan, with the aid of King Edgar, installed a community of Benedictine monks here  Legends say it was founded by a Bishop Mellitus, ca. 620 and built on what was then “Thorn Island” in the middle of the Thames River  Tradition has it that a fisherman named Aldrich saw a vision of Saint Peter nearby, so its official name is The Collegiate Church of St Peter  This is why gifts of salmon were given to the Abbey by local fisher- men; the Fishmonger's Company still gives a salmon every year  The abbey church gained considerably more importance after 1245 when King Henry III expanded it to be a fit place for his burial  Many royal events were subsequently held here (and still are)  The Abbot is a member of the House of Lords. What abbey am I?
  • 68. Keeping literacy alive From the very beginning of monasticism, copy- ing rooms were installed in the monasteries and the copying of manuscripts held in esteem. The Rule required monks to study Scripture and the writings of the Church Fathers and monas- tery novices learned their letters by reading and copying sacred texts. Hence the demand, especially for Gospels, Psalms, and Mass books (missals). Since they wore out with use the demand for replacements was incessant. Some monks composed original works, for example, historical chronicles, commentaries and hymns.
  • 69. A most illuminating work A masterwork of Western calligraphy, the Book of Kells represents the pinnacle of a fusion of art/scholarship in an “illuminated manuscript.” Presently exhibited in the library of Trinity Univ., Dublin, it is regarded as Ireland's finest national treasure. Text decoration combines traditional Christian icono- graphy with ornate swirling motifs, figures of humans, animals and mythical beasts, together with Celtic knots, all in vibrant colors.
  • 70.  During the Dark Ages, monasteries were islands of scholarship in a sea of ignorance  Higher education and the training of clergy took place there for hundreds of years; monks and nuns taught classes  Evidence of this happening dates back to the 6th century  Institutes of higher learning, especially of religion, promoted by Charlemagne (r. 768-814), the first Holy Roman Emperor, who with his sons was taught by an English deacon, Alcuin  Universities and cathedral schools were a later continuation of the interest in learning promoted by monks and nuns  The earliest universities were developed by an order of the Church (called a papal bull) as studia generalia – for all students  Thus was founded the University of Paris (ca. 1150) Monasteries begat universities
  • 71.  Trivium  Grammar  Logic  Rhetoric  Quadrivium  Arithmetic  Geometry  Music  Astronomy Universities taught the basics
  • 72. Universities taught the basics These seven areas of edu- cation (“arts”) were deemed essential to the education of all free-born (“liberated”) members of society, hence the name given them, the Liberal Arts. If you learned all of these subjects well, you earned the degree of Master of Arts (MA)
  • 73.  During the Renaissance, Italian humanists re-christened the Trivium the Studia humanitatis and increased its scope...  ...by adding history, Greek, and ethics and making poetry the most important member of the whole  This new course of studies spread throughout Europe during the 16th century and became the educational foundation...  ... for the schooling of European elites, functionaries of political administration, the clergy, and the learned professions of law and medicine  The ideal of a liberal arts education grounded in classical languages and literature persisted well into the 20th century  Today a liberal arts education refers to having some familiarity with many areas: literature, languages, psychology, philosophy, mathematics, music, history, social sciences, and economics.
  • 74. Christianity can be proud  Scripture does not explicitly commend to us education, learning, or scholarship: in fact, it tells of Jesus admonishing scribes, and...  ... 2Cor. 10:5 can be read as being anti-intellectual: “We demolish arguments and every pretension that sets itself up against the knowledge of God, and we take captive every thought to make it obedient to Christ.”  Still, we know that Paul, whose articulate letters are (with the Gospels) the heart of the NT, was very well-educated, as were the Church Fathers, who gave us foundational Christian theology  Furthermore, Christian institutions were for centuries the loci of literacy; government and church administration and monasteries and convents were bastions of learning and literature Christians can take pride in the Church for centuries of work of copying and translating manuscripts, composing music, organizing communities, educating youth, extending hospitality, establishing hospitals, and acting as ambassadors and advisors to kings throughout the Western world.
  • 75. End of Lesson 2 Challenges and Controversies in the course of Christian history Part 1: Formulation and Reformation
  • 76. Lesson 3: A Prophet Challenges Christianity Challenges and Controversies in the course of Christian history Part 1: Formulation and Reformation
  • 77. This is the plan determined for the whole world; This is the hand stretched out over all nations. For the Lord Almighty has purposed, who can thwart him? His hand is stretched out, and who can turn it back? - Is. 14:26-27
  • 78. Does God direct the course of battle? He makes nations great, and destroys them. He enlarges nations and disperses them. - Job 12:23 For God is the King of all the earth; Sing to him a psalm of praise; God reigns over the nations; God is seated on his holy throne. The nobles of the nations assemble as the people of the God of Abraham, For the kings of the earth belong to God... - Ps. 47:7-9
  • 79. Does God direct the course of battle? During the American Civil War, President Lincoln was puzzled by what the Divine will was for the country. In contrast, people in both the Union and Confederate states were certain that they knew God's will: He blessed their cause. Julia Ward Howe's stirring Battle Hymn of the Republic expressed sentiments common in the North – that the Union army waged God’s righteous war. The Confederacy chose as its motto (blazoned on its Great Seal) “Deo Vindice”, that is, “God Will Vindicate Us” (or God is our champion). What do you think? Does God direct the course of wars?
  • 80. {God} is not served by human hands, as if he needed anything. Rather, He Himself gives everyone life and breath and everything else. From one man He made all the nations, that they should inhabit the whole earth; and He marked out their appointed times in history and the boundaries of their lands. - Acts 17:25-26 President Abraham Lincoln wrote the following (undated, unpublished note): “The will of God prevails. In great contests each party claims to act in accordance with the will of God. Both may be, and one must be wrong. God cannot be for, and against the same thing at the same time. In the present civil war it is quite possible that God's purpose is some what different from the purpose of either party...”
  • 81. If God directed Christian history, here’s what should have happened 1. After the Resurrection, there is a time of trials and persecution 2. Still, faithful bishops, teachers, and martyrs spread Christianity 3. God calls the Emperor Constantine to protect and support the faith 4. Christianity is triumphant throughout the known (civilized) world 5. Jerome produces the Vulgate, Augustine expounds doctrine, then - 6. God’s plan for all nations is accomplished and His Kingdom of peace, joy, love, and abundance is realized on earth. But after events #1 - #5, #6 did not happen. What did happen was…
  • 82. Rome is sacked first in 410 (by Visigoths), in 455 (by Vandals), and in 546 (by Goths). As the Empire collapsed, the western half broke up into warring kingdoms. The eastern half remained an ordered whole centered on Constantinople. The Bishop of Rome remained Head of the Church and dir- ected missionary work among the “barbarian” tribes. But for 500 yrs, the darkness of stagna- tion, war, ignorance, fear, disease and poverty reigned. The Christian World, 450 AD ....Dark Ages
  • 83.  Justinian I (r. 527-565) sought to reconquer lost portions of the Empire and revive it’s greatness.  His general, Belisarius, conquered the Vandal Kingdom in North Africa, then the Ostrogothic Kingdom, restoring Dalmatia, Sicily, and Italy to the Empire after 50 years of barbarian control.  Because of his restoration activities, Justinian has sometimes been called the “Last Roman”  He continued the policy of Emperor Justin (his uncle) to fight the spread of the Monophysite heresy (condemned at the Council of Chalcedon; see Lesson Four)  The impact of his administration extended far beyond the boundaries of his time and domain.  A more important legacy was the uniform re-writing of Roman law, still the basis of civil law in many modern states Ruler of law and order
  • 84. Under Justinian there occurred a blossoming of culture, and his building pro- gram yielded such master- pieces as the Church of Holy Wisdom, center of Eastern Orthodox Christianity for centuries.
  • 85.  Gregory I (540-604, Pope 590-604) brought great prestige and increased the power of the Papacy by outstanding leadership and integrity, earning him the sobriquet “Great.”  Born into a wealthy landed Roman family with close ties to the Church... received an excellent education and became a government official... Advanced to be- come Prefect (highest city civil office) by age 33.  On his father's death, Gregory converted the family villa into a mon- astery, lived as a monk for a few years, then served for six years as Papal ambassador to the imperial court in Constantinople.  Gregory returned to his monastery (AD 585) and was elected Abbot.  When plague ravaged Rome, he worked with Pope Pelagius II to care for the sick until the latter himself died of the disease. The clergy acclaimed Gregory as his successor despite his protestations. A leader of holiness and influence
  • 86.  Acting as both ecclesiastical and secular auth- ority, he organized, rebuilt, and energized the city of Rome and the Church as a whole;  Secured peace with the Lombard tribe (who were trying to conquer all Italy);  Preached widely and wrote prolifically, en- couraging Christian commitment A leader of greatness  Reformed the liturgy of the Mass, and regularized the Church year;  Persuaded the Visigoth king to switch from Arianism to Nicean doctrine and sent missionaries to England (next slide)  Western standard plain chant (Gregorian Chant) evolved from a style attributed to him. The Gregorian calendar, developed in the 16th century, was named for Pope Gregory XIII
  • 87. City of angels Angles  A Benedictine missionary, Augustine, is chosen by Pope Gregory to lead a mission (AD 595) to England to the pagan king, Ethelbert who had just married a Christian, Queen Bertha  Ethelbert's capital was the city of Canterbury, in the kingdom of Kent  To please his wife, the king embraced Christianity, allowed the missionaries to preach freely in his lands  Augustine is consecrated as the first Archbishop of Canterbury in AD 597, goes on to convert many of the people; thousands are baptized en masse on Christmas Day that year alone.  He is known today as the "Apostle to the English“ and founder of the English Church.
  • 88. Christianity spread and thrived throughout the Mediterranean world but was not well en- trenched beyond its “edges”, e.g. Persia, India, and the Arabian Peninsula Christian witness not strong everywhere
  • 89. While Christianity spread in the West... It is June, AD 622. A man arrived at the loose collec- tion of farming villages in a fertile coastal area bordering the Red Sea called Yathrib after a difficult 200 mile journey from the north through wilderness. Some 70 of his followers awaited him, each having made the same trip separately, a few a time, sur- reptitiously. All were fleeing persecution, seek- ing a place to practice and preach their faith in the one true God.
  • 90. It is June, AD 622. A man comes to the loose collec- tion of farming villages in a fer- tile coastal area bordering the Red Sea called Yathrib after a difficult 200 mile journey from the north through wilderness. Some 70 of his followers await him, each having made the same trip separately, a few a time, surreptitiously. All are fleeing persecution, seek- ing a place to practice and preach their faith in the one true God. ...a new faith arises in the desert This event (the Hijra) is later considered so impor- tant that his followers start a new calendar with this event as day one, year one. The success of his flight and of the subsequent successful spread of his powerful faith alters the course of Christian history and with it, world history. As everyone in the well-connected the 21st century knows, that new faith is now an influential factor in the world events. The man’s name: Muḥammad ibn Abd Allāh
  • 91. Origins of a new religion  Muhammad was born ca. 570 in Mecca, a bustling trading and pilgrimage town on the western edge of the Arabian desert  Orphaned at age 6, he was raised by his grandfather, then by a wealthy and powerful uncle  Growing up he learned how to manage trading caravans. He earned a reputation for trustworthiness and was sought as an arbitrator  His stellar reputation attracted a marriage proposal (AD 595) from Khadijah, a wealthy 40-year- old widowed merchant  He proved to be an astute businessman yet also deeply spiritual, spending long hours in meditation.
  • 92. Origins of a new religion  Tradition has it that one night he was visited by the angel Gabriel who ordered him to “recite” the words of God that came to him  During the rest of his life he continued to receive revelations that his followers compiled in a book titled “Recitations” (Qu'ran)  Believing that God had chosen him as His messenger (or prophet), he began to preach to the people of his city, Mecca  The message was simple; there is only one God (Allah)  Life should be lived in submission (Islam) to His will.
  • 93.  His message attracted some people but threated those in power who controlled access to the shrine (the Ka’ba) of the many regional gods  After Muhammad’s uncle and protector died, the city rulers decided to rid themselves of this bothersome prophet  He eluded assassination by fleeing to Yathrib, later named Medina, “the city of the prophet”, the move later called the Hijra. Intrigue, drama and violence
  • 94. Fight / Write  After this, the first leader (caliph) to succeed him, Abu Bakr, enlisted scribes who had worked under the Prophet to collect the Recitations and produce the first complete one-volume manuscript.  Abu Bakr's original was then used to prepare “authorized” or standard copies of the Qu’an (or Koran).  Over the next 8 years Muhammad fought attacks sent from Mecca (lost some, won some) and gained followers and political clout  In 630, he returned to Mecca with 10,000 fighters and entered the city almost unopposed. His former enemies converted to Islam  He was accepted in the region as Prophet of God, and led the community spiritually and politically until his death in 632.
  • 95.  There is only One God (absolutely no Trinity); God has sent prophets to mankind to teach them how to live  Jesus, Moses and Abraham are all respected as prophets but…  …the final and most important prophet was Muhammad to whom God revealed His most perfect teachings to complete the others  Although Islam has always existed, for practical purposes its beginning is dated from the year Muhammad fled to Medina Islam in a nutshell  Islamic legal code (sharia) is based on the Qur'an, the life of the Prophet (Sunnah), and juridical consensus (ijma)  Acts that Muslims must perform (5 Pillars of Islam): say the declaration of faith, pray 5 times/day, give alms, fast 1 month (Ramadan) and make pilgrimage (Haj) to Mecca at least once.
  • 96. Spread of the new faith In 100 years, Islam swept away Christianity in Persia, North Africa, and Spain. Why such rapid conversion?
  • 97. Weakness of the old faith Islam spread so rapidly in part because Christianity was weakened by centuries of doctrinal strife, heavy taxation by Byzantine rulers (who did not defend against plun- dering by marauders) and endless local power struggles.
  • 98.  Military conquest* by Umayyad (661-750) and Abbasid (750-900) dynasties was the main reason for this rapid spread but Muslim leaders tolerated other faiths and usually did not force conversion  People learned of Islam through beneficial trading activity, it was simple, and it had a clear set of beliefs and practices that earned heaven and avoided eternity in hell;  It appealed to lower-class groups because of its commitment to charity and spiritual equality and it appealed to the middle classes because it legitimated merchant activity more than did most belief systems;  The power and success of Muslim armies alone attracted people to the faith that drove them on;  The conquerors also levied a special tax on minority communities, so it paid one to convert. Appeal of the new faith *Holy War (Jihad, “struggle”) is a term applied primarily to one’s personal fight against sin.
  • 99. Muslim forces from Spain invading France in AD 732 were defeated by Frankish and Burgundianforces under Charles Martel (“the Hammer”) at the Battle of Tours (Oct. 10, 732). Limit of the new faith This was the decisive turning point in the struggle of Western Christendom against Islam, and so preserved Christianity as the dominant religion of Europe. The battle was fought in an area between Poitiers and Tours (west-central France). The leader of the invasion force, Abdul Rahman Al Ghafiqi, was killed and Charles subsequently extended his authority in the south of France. The Muslim army was driven back over the Pyrenees.
  • 100.  Many centers of Christian history, thought, leadership and influ- ence are taken under Muslim rule, including Jerusalem, Antioch, Damascus, Carthage and Alexandria (but not as yet Constantinople)  The Iberian peninsula, invaded in AD 711, remains under Muslim rule until 1492. From there, Islamic scholars seed the Renaissance  Christianity, where it does persist under tolerant Muslim control, does not grow and is largely cut off from Western Christianity  The geography of Christian activity changes, shifting from lands bordering the Mediterranean Sea to northern and continental regions controlled by the Franks, Angles, and Germanic tribes  Orthodoxy has no option but to expand north and east into Slavic lands and Russia, which it does  The Byzantine Empire is reduced considerably in size, roughly to the regions constituting modern-day Turkey and Greece. Islam’s effect on Christianity
  • 101. Christianity’s response  Western kingdoms responded by re-taking control of the Levant by force of arms (1st Crusade, 1096-1099)  Within 50 yrs most of the region was back under Muslim control. French and German forces (2nd Crusade, 1147-1149), trying to win it back, were crushed.  A 3rd Crusade (1197-1192, fea- tured Richard Lionheart) won little, reached a peace treaty.  Despite the bloodshed, the West benefited from contact with Islam through trading and access to Islamic scholarship.
  • 102. It was a golden age  Islamic countries experienced a “golden” period of cultural, economic and scientific flourishing from the 8th to the 14th century...  ...kicked off by the founding of the House of Wisdom in Baghdad where scholars from various cultures and regions gathered to translate the world's classical knowledge into Arabic.  Just a sampling of many Islamic con- tributions include the manufacture of rag paper, preservation of works of Plato and Aristotle, the use of Arabic numerals, developments in chemistry (al Kimiya), astronomy, poetry, law, and medicine  Islamic art and architecture reached a high level with the building and decoration of great mosques.
  • 103. Interior, Sultan Ahmed (or Blue) Mosque in Istanbul, Turkey, built 1609-1616.
  • 104. Moorish architecture reached its peak with the Alhambra, palace of Granada, with its open and breezy interior spaces decorated with geometrically patterned glazed tiles, stylized foliage motifs, Arabic inscriptions, and arabesque designs.
  • 105. Islam today  2nd largest religious group claiming ca. 1.9B adherents (ca. 25% of world population); most belong to either Sunni (~85%) or Shia (~15%) branches  Countries with the largest Muslim members are (by rank): Indonesia, Pakistan, Bangeldesh and India (where it is 2nd after Hinduism)  Dominant religion of Central Asia, the Middle East, and North Africa.  Though a minority religion in Europe (6%), N. America (1%) and S. America (0.2%), it is...  ...the fastest-growing faith in the world (1.8%/yr vs. 1.3%/yr for Christianity), mostly due to higher birthrates, not conversions.  Some 2M completed the Hajj (pilgrimage to Mecca) in 2018 (photo, left).
  • 106. Islam (and Christianity) tomorrow? ISLAM Muslims believe that God desires all people everywhere to submit to Him. This is to be a voluntary matter of the heart and soul.  Dar-al-Islam All regions where Islam is already the dominant religious group and the tenents of the faith permeate culture, business and government  Dar-al-harb Regions where Islam, though a significant presence, is not dominant but is “fighting” to gain control  Dar-al-sulh Regions where Islam is not dominant and is not (yet) actively trying to gain adherents CHRISTIANITY Christians believe that God offers all people the free gift of forgiveness and salvation in Jesus Christ and a new life in the power of the Holy Spirit.  Christian Nations Regions where Christianity is the dominant religion (if fractured into many denominations) and permeates culture, business and government  Mission Fields Regions where Christianity is not dominant but has established ministries and is actively in proselytizing  [Needs Prayer] Where Christianity is absent or disappearing, i.e. Islam or secularism dominates.
  • 107. End of Lesson 3 Challenges and Controversies in the course of Christian history Part 1: Formulation and Reformation
  • 108. Lesson 4: East Side, West Side Challenges and Controversies in the course of Christian history Part 1: Formulation and Reformation
  • 109. The well-ordered harmonious Church Formal organization of the Church began as it separated from Judaism after the destruction of Jerusalem in AD 70. In letters of the NT written late in the 1st century there is reference to “overseers” (episkopes, or bishops) and “deacons” (diakonous, or elders/priests, e.g. in 1Tim. 3). There are many references to a three-ranked church hierarchy in the 2nd century writings of “Church Fathers”. Two examples are: I exhort you, do all things with divine harmony, while your bishop presides in the place of God, and your elders in the place of the assembly of the apostles, along with your deacons. - Ignatius c. 105 Innumerable commands… are written in the Holy Scriptures per- taining to chosen persons: some to elders, some to bishops, some to deacons. - Clement of Alexandria c. 195 No verses in the NT lead one to expect that the Church was, is, or should be anything other than unified and harmonious.
  • 110. [The catholic church] believes points of doctrine just as if she had only one soul and the same heart and she proclaims them and teaches them in perfect harmony… For the churches planted in Germany do not believe anything different nor do those in Spain nor those in Gaul not those in the East nor those in Egypt nor those in Africa… - Irenaeus of Lyon, Against Heresies, 1.10.2 (ca. AD 190) Unity of the universal church The one ark of Noah was a type of the one church. - Cyprian (ca. AD 250) The catholic church is one. - Victorinus (ca. AD 280)
  • 111. As his own writing “Against Heresy” made clear, there never was universal harmony in Christendom. Today there are countless denominations, splinter/fringe groups from these, non-denomi- national churches, and religious organizations that are debatably Christian (e.g. the Mormons). Why are there so many divisions in the Body of Christ? Irenaeus, et. al. were dreaming
  • 112. Do warped people cause divisions? But avoid foolish controversies and genealogies and arguments and quarrels about the law, because these are unprofitable and useless. Warn a divisive person once, and then warn them a second time. After that, have nothing to do with them. You may be sure that such people are warped and sinful; they are self- condemned. - Titus 3:9-11 If both sides of a contro- troversy take this position, schism is sure to result
  • 113. Love of arguments, partisanship, or reducing complex issues simplistic “black/white” solutions– all of these are as old as humanity. In the past, disputations on theology were not limited to theologians and learned church dignitaries- lay people took sides in heated debate. According to Gregory Nazianzen (4th century): “This city is full of mechanics and slaves who are all profound theologians and preachers in the shops and in the streets. Ask a man to change a piece of silver, he informs you how the Son differs from the Father, ask about the price of a loaf of bread, you are told in reply that the Son is inferior to the Father, and inquire whether the bath is ready, the answer is that the Son was made out of nothing.” Do foolish controversies cause divisions?
  • 114. The Nicean Creed as amended and ratified at the 2nd Great Council (of Constantinople in AD 381) read: “I believe … in one Lord Jesus Christ, the only-begotten Son of God.... very God of very God, begotten, not made... of one sub- tance with the Father... came down...and was incarnate by the Holy Spirit of the Virgin Mary...made man…” Sounds like Jesus was, from eternity, one with God, but then he became human for a while. So, is Jesus still “man”? Did he switch back to be God after his crucifixion? The puzzle that was Jesus Or is he (somehow) God and man at the same time? Christians have wrestled with this question since the late 2nd century, when highly edu- cated, literate Christian thinkers began writing about “Christology”.
  • 115. Wrestling with theology Christian history is rich in literate men and women of holiness and great intellect who left us a record of their struggles in coming to faith in Jesus Christ, in proclaiming that faith and in expressing its depths, the discipline we now call “theology.” Four of the most important from the 3rd and 4th centuries are: John Chrysotom (349-407) Archbishop (Constantinople) popular for fiery but practical preaching, spoke against Church abuses, eventually exiled. Jerome (347 - 420) Scholar of the 1st rank, produced a Latin translation of the Bible (the Vulgate) that served as the Bible for 1,000 years. Gregory of Nazianzus (329-390) Archbishop (Constantinople), Greek writer, theologian, philosopher, acclaimed orator, defended the Trinity. Augustine, Bishop of Hippo (354-430) Perhaps the most influential theo- logian of all time, Latin writer of the 1st autobiography, “The Confessions”.
  • 116. “Nor did the Son truly redeem us by his own blood if he did not really become man.” - Irenaeus (ca. AD 180)  Followers of Nestorius (Patriarch, Constantinople, 428-431) taught that Jesus possessed two separate and distinctive “natures”, one divine, one human. Did that mean that Jesus had a split personality?  Dioscurus (Patriarch of Alexandria) rejected the disunity of Jesus and instead taught monophysitism (“one soul”), i.e. Jesus had one nature and one personality in which divinity and humanity blended at all times. Did that mean that Jesus was not really God or human? How can Jesus be human and God? Other Christians, for whom Pope Leo I (440-461) was the leading voice, sensed that neither of these was the “right” expression of the unity in one Person of the two Natures of true God and true Man realized in Jesus by the Incarnation.
  • 117. In the East, a victory for the West In AD 450, Emperor Theodosius II, a Monophysite sympathizer, died when thrown from his horse and his sister, Pulcheria, a friend of Pope Leo chose Marcian to be her consort and new Emperor. Few people debate this doctrine nowadays because we gave up long ago trying to explain the Incarnation and just repeat what was handed down to us from this long-ago Council. She persuaded him to call a 4th Ecumenical Council of over 500 bishops, held AD 451 in Chalcedon, Bithynia, not far from the capital, to debate and resolve the divisive Christo- logical dispute. Agreement was reached and Christianity had its “right belief” in the careful wording of the Chalcedonian Definition. The orthodox position: Jesus was 1 Person with 2 Natures.
  • 118.  The Nicene Creed of AD 381 also read: “I believe … in the Holy Spirit, the Lord, the Giver of life, who proceeds from the Father, who with the Father and the Son is worshipped and together glorified…”  Beginning at some time in Spain, Christians, likely as a guard against Arianism, inserted the phrase “and from the son” (Latin: filio que)  Its use spread slowly without much notice until Charlemagne’s court fanned controversy by accusing Greek churches of heresy for not including it in their recitations  Pope Leo III (795-816) agreed that the filioque was sound doctrine but he did not endorse a change with the traditional wording  Greek patriarchs countered that the filioque was bad theology; if the West changed the Creed without consent of the East, the West would be guilty of sinning against the unity of the church. More East-West disagreement But theological wrangling did not end. Another serious dust-up occurred over the question of “procession.”
  • 119. Is the Bishop of Rome supreme?  Five patriarchs (of Jerusalem, Constantinople, Alexandria, Antioch, Rome) held primary authority in their regions in the early Church.  Deference was accorded the Bishop of Rome, the capital city of the Empire until AD 325 and where Apostle Peter died a martyr  Authority for Orthodox Christianity is neither Pope nor Bible, but Scripture as interpreted by the ecumenical councils of the church.  Orthodoxy also relies heavily on the writings of early Greek fathers such as Gregory of Nyssa, John Chrysostom and St. Basil the Great.
  • 120. Cultural Linguistic Liturgical Theological Geographical Supremacy Differences ran deep East – West: who’s right, who decides? Eastern Empire Constantinople Western Empire Rome
  • 121. In 768, Charles, son of Pepin the Short and grandson of Charles Martel, and his brother Carloman become joint rulers of the Frankish kingdom. But soon Carloman died (771) and Charles, now king alone goes energetically to work enlarging the Frankish realm by conquering Saxony, Lombardy and Bavaria, earning a new name “Charles the Great”, Charlemagne. On Christmas Day of 800, while the devout king kneels at the altar of St. Peter's Basilica, Pope Leo III crowns him "Emperor of the Romans”, an insult to the then ruling Empress of the Eastern Roman Empire. He establishes his capital at Aachen, where he dies in 814. Ironically, his elaborate burial clothing was made in Constantinople. A great king of the West arises
  • 123. Charlemagne introduced valuable and lasting reforms in the Church besides just conquering regions of Europe.  Appointed as bishops men he determined were worthy leaders  Ordered that preaching be done in the languages of the people  Made sure Sunday was honored as a day of rest  Collected a tithe for the church like it was a tax  Brought monasteries into compliance with the Rule of Benedict  Had a school set up in every parish open to all, even the poor. Reforms in the West - Struggles in the East While the Empire in the West was thriving under the leader- ship of Charlemagne and Pope Leo III... Eastern Orthodoxy pushes north into central Europe & Russia ... the Byzantine Empire in the East was reduced in size to Asia Minor + Greece as a result of a war with Persia and the conquests of the Islamic Caliphate.
  • 124. They were opposed by missionaries from Germany who were trying to impress Latin (Western) rites on the people. Partisan squabbling ended when Hungarians (Magyars) aggressively fought their way across Europe beginning in AD 906 and took control of much of eastern Europe. By AD 1001, however, they converted to Christianity. Different regions chose liturgical styles, East or West. E-W friction in Central Europe Political and religious interests combined to give a boost to Orthodox Christianity in central Europe. In the mid-800’s brothers Cyril and Methodius (right) gained fame and sainthood for their efforts to instill Eastern liturgical theology and practices in Slavic peoples who settled north of the Danube helped along with a new alpha- bet (Cyrillic) they devised.
  • 125. Relations between Constantinople & Rome grew steady worse. In 1053, after Greeks in Italy are forced to conform to Western worship practices, Patriarch of Constantinople, Michael Cerularis demanded that Latins there adopt Greek practices; when they refuse he shut them down. Then the Bulgarian Archbishop sent a letter to Cardinal Humbert, Papal Secretary to Pope Leo IX, harshly criticizing Western practices. Russia goes Christian After Latin missionaries converted Olga, Queen of the Rus, to Christianity in AD 950, her efforts to bring the faith to her people earned her veneration as the 1st Saint of Russia. But it was her grandson Vladimir who completed the conversion of the entire nation, taking on help to do so from Byzantium, not Rome. The Pope orders Humbert to head a legatine mission to Constantinople with an uncompromising response.
  • 126. Great schism! This event represented a definite break, not just an estrangement of Eastern Orthodox Christianity and Western, or Roman Catholic, Christianity. It is now used to date the start of “The Great Schism.” The Pope’s delegation traveled to Constantinople in the following year (1054) and received a cordial welcome by Emperor Constantine IX. It is, however, spurned by Patriarch Michael. And with good reason. During celebration of the Mass, Cardinal Patriarch Michael in turn excommunicates the Cardinal and the Pope. Humbert lays a Papal Bull of excommunication of the Patriarch on the altar of the Church of Holy Wisdom (Hagia Sophia, above).
  • 127. 1453 – An Ottoman (Muslim) army cap- tures Constantinople, converts the Hagia Sophia into a mosque (now a museum). Eastern Orthodoxy remains strong north of Turkey, and is today the major faith of Russia (ca. 60% of the pop.), Ukraine (ca. 70%), Romania (80%), Belarus (ca. 65%), Fast forward Greece (97%), Serbia (85%), Bulgaria (88%), Moldova (93%), Georgia (84%), Macedonia (65%), Cyprus (89%) and Montenegro (72%).
  • 128. Orthodox strong, but... Greece today is a nearly all- Christian nation, the 2nd-most religious country in Europe (after Romania); it’s Constitution designates Orthodoxy as its national religion and being Orthodox is widely seen as synonymous with being Greek. And yet, in 11/18 the govern- ment and the Church reached an agreement in what was widely seen as the first step towards separation of the two. Change will be likely be gradual, but these current privileges are at risk:  Clergy salaries and pensions are paid by the government; churches pay no tax on revenues; some use land that is State-owned;  The government recognizes Church canon law in matters pertaining to church administration  Church marriages and baptisms are legally equal to civil counterparts  Orthodox students in 1o and 2o schools attend religious instruction.
  • 129. In the middle of the 14th century, lethal plague caused by the bactrium Yersinia pestis, possibly originating in central Asia and spread by fleas hosted by rats, swept across Europe killing from about 35-50% of the pop- ulation (estimates vary widely, perhaps 100-200 million people out of ca. 450 million). Unimaginable horror
  • 130. What life was like in about the year 1400?  Everyone lives a pastoral life in a small village  No schools - no one can read/write/add except the monks in the region’s monastery – it is an oral culture  No news except a King’s crier (usually taxation or war) or by way of a (rare) visit by an entertainer, peddler, or troubadour  Elders dispense justice guided by custom passed down  No roads – only a few rough tracks (an no signposts); travel is dangerous because there are no maps; people get lost easily  No clocks, no calendars; only sense of passing time sense comes from the sun, moon and seasons  People memorize everything of value – stories, Bible passages, customs, details of trades (no written contracts) Isolation, ignorance, and illiteracy
  • 131. What life was like in about the year 1400?  Everyone lives a pastoral life in a small village  No schools - no one can read/write/add except the monks in the region’s monastery – it is an oral culture  No news except a King’s crier (usually taxation or war) or by way of a (rare) visit by an entertainer, peddler, or troubadour  Elders dispense justice guided by custom passed down  No roads – only a few rough tracks (an no signposts); travel is dangerous because there are no maps; people get lost easily  No clocks, no calendars; only sense of passing time sense comes from the sun, moon and seasons  People memorize everything of value – stories, Bible passages, customs, details of trades (no written contracts) Isolation, ignorance, and illiteracy "In such condition there is no place for industry, because the fruit there of is uncertain and, consequently, no culture.., no navigation, nor the use of commodities that may be imported by sea, no large buildings, no instruments of moving and removing such things as require much force, no knowledge... of the earth, no account of time, no arts, no letters, no society... {only} continual fear and danger of violent death. {And so} the life of man is solitary, poor, nasty, brutish, and short.“ - Thomas Hobbes, “Leviathan” 1651
  • 132. Church organization was like that of an army; you knew your rank
  • 133. People came together to attend church, to celebrate a wedding (Pieter Brugal, 1566), to hold court or to hear the Crier’s news
  • 134. But in the wake of plague... ...Rebirth!  Depopulation meant that sur- vivors were more prosperous  The H. R. E. declined in power resulting in more local autonomy  Crusaders began trading instead of fighting, business booms  Centers of wealth and power arose in Florence, Venice, Milan, other major trading cities  Arts and scholarship benefited from texts saved, copied by Islam
  • 135. I charge you before the Lord to have this letter read to all the brothers and sisters. - 1Th. 5:27 (Jesus) answered, “Haven’t you read what David did when he and his companions were hungry?... Or haven’t you read in the Law that the priests on Sabbath duty in the temple… - Mt. 12:3-5 Jesus said to them, “Have you never read in the Scriptures: “‘The stone the builders rejected has become the cornerstone… - Mt. 21:42 But about the resurrection of the dead—have you not read what God said to you… - Mt. 22:31 After this letter has been read to you, see that it is also read in the church of the Laodiceans and that you in turn read the letter from Laodicea. - Co. 4:16 We are commanded to be literate
  • 136. Notre Dame de Paris 1163-1345 Sunday school in medieval Europe York Minster 1220-1472 The statues, carvings and stained glass windows of churches instructed the illiterate their Biblical history, lives of the saints, parables and commandments
  • 137. The greatest literate mind of all time  He then completed his formal education in Paris under the direction of Albertus Magnus.  The most influential Church theologian, writer and jurist in the Middle Ages (some say of all time) was born in Aquino, Sicily in 1225  His uncle was the Abbot of Monte Cassino  His family intended him, the last of seven sons, to follow his uncle to the abbey...  ...so he was educated there until, at age 14, conflict between Pope and Emperor disturbed monastery life. He was forced...  ...to continue studies in Naples under a Dominican friar who influenced him to join that Order despite efforts by his parents to force him to become a Benedictine Because he was quiet and didn't speak much, fellow students thought he was slow and nicknamed him the “Dumb Ox”.
  • 138.  Thomas spent the rest of his life studying, writing, and teaching at Paris, Cologne, Naples  He rejected an offer from the Pope to become (after all!) the Abbot of Monte Cassino despite his not being a Benedictine.  He incorporated newly re-discovered Greek philosophy into Christian theology and read the great Jewish and Muslim writers....  ...then put everything into the most formidable work of Christian thought ever compiled – a “summary of all theology” (Summa Theologica)  Declared a “Doctor” of the church (1567)  Pope Leo XIII stated (in the 1879 encyclical “Aeterni Patris”) that the Summa was the definitive exposition of Catholic doctrine. Thomas Aquinas was no dummy “It’s impossible for that which is true by reason to be contrary to that which true by faith.”
  • 139. End of Lesson 4 Challenges and Controversies in the course of Christian history Part 1: Formulation and Reformation
  • 140. Lesson 5: This Changes Everything Challenges and Controversies in the course of Christian history Part 1: Formulation and Reformation
  • 141. Moving into the 16th century, things in the Church are coming to a boil By the year 1500, Western Christianity was in turmoil from scandalous internal corruption of the hierarchy, the unholy East-West schism, the horrendous plagues, Dark Ages ignorance and superstition, and the loss of territory to armies from the Middle East (Isalm) and the Far East (Mongols). Among these bad things one factor that shaped events was a very good thing....
  • 142. One critical contributing factor was...
  • 143. ...an increased demand for literacy As Europe recovered from the Black Death and the Italian Renaissance blos- somed, demand for literate people to serve in law, commerce, Church and civil administration, universities, diplomacy, and banking surged.
  • 144. A rags to riches story  Monks copying manuscripts developed an important aid to their work, what by 1350 became common: reading glasses.  Waterpower technology for mines and mills was adapted to pound rags into linen pulp for making “rag” paper  Prosperity and population growth in- creased the demand for clothing which in turn generated more rag scrap  By 1400, paper became less expensive than parchment; soon after that, 100 times less expensive. Churches opened their schools to children whose wealthy parents wanted them to become part of the new secular economy; this, and other developments enabled many non-clergy to learn to read:
  • 145. Paper Making Wine, Oil Pressing Metal Working Three developing technologies merge
  • 146. Put them together and what happens? A world-changing event. This “perfect storm” changes everything In 1455, in Mainz, Germany, Johann Gutenberg, the youngest son (b. 1398) of Else and Friele Gensfleisch zur Laden (she a shopkeeper, he a merchant) publishes a Bible. Not just any Bible, but the Latin Vulgate printed using a press and robust, moveable metal type on rag paper*. From then on, skilled workers and printing presses converted a single hand written text to hundreds, even thousands of neat, readable and in- expensive copies. *He also printed copies on parchment.
  • 147. Gutenberg Bible displayed in the Capitol Rotunda, Washington, DC
  • 148. 1423 Use of engraving on wood, block printing) to produce books. 1436 Gutenberg begins work on a printing press in Strasburg. 1440 Gutenberg completes a press which uses movable metal type. 1444 Returns to Mainz and sets up a printing shop 1448 Gutenberg prints the "Calendar for 1448" 1450 Begins work on a Bible, the first is 40 lines per page. 1452 Gutenberg begins printing the 42-line Bible in two volumes. 1455 First block-printed Bible published in Germany. 1455 Completes work on estimated 200 copies of the Bible 1455 Goes bankrupt. Investor Johann Faust gains control of business 1460 Gutenberg re-establishes printing business with the aid of investor 1461 Albrecht Pfister prints the first illustrated book (woodcuts). 1465 Gutenberg is appointed to the court of Archbishop Adolf of Nassau 1476 200 woodcuts were used in a edition of Aesop's Fables 1476 First use of copper engravings for illustration 1476 William Caxton sets up his printing press in Westminster, England. Start the presses!
  • 149. Mass-produced reading material becomes cheap enough to publish anything – flyers, brochures, broadsides, and, yes, the news. What was the first newspaper? The German- language Relation aller Fürnemmen und ge- denckwürdigen Historien, (Strasbourg, 1605). Soon there followed the Avisa (1609) in Wolfenbüttel. Another early paper, the Dutch “Corrant out of Italy, Germany, etc.” (1618) was the first to appear in folio-size, rather than quarto-size. Now the news is fit to print Translated into and published in English, this publication was the first English-language newspaper (1620) sold anywhere; 1 ½ years later, the “Weekely Newes” was the first ever published in England.
  • 150.  Shattered the older oral culture relying entirely on word-of-mouth, story-telling, stained-glass windows, and memorization  Caused the copying of manuscripts in monasteries (which continued for some time) to gradually fade away  Gave a boost to education in monastery and cathedral schools and so also to the spread of literacy  Made Bibles much more available (all in the Latin Vulgate version) and so many more people read Holy Scripture for themselves  Enabled agents to raise money for Papacy building programs by selling mass-printed notes promising the buyer the remittance of punishment due his sins {indulgences). Gutenberg printed some. The impact printing had on Christianity Most importantly, demand also rises for theological and philo- sophical pamphlets and books. By 1500, some 8 million books of all kinds are in circulation. The print revolution has prepared Europe for a more profound revolution: religious reformation.
  • 151. The bell tolls for the unified Western Church What does it mean, “to whom the bell tolls”?
  • 152. ...Entire of Itself, Every man is a piece of the Continent, A part of the Main. If a clod be washed away by the Sea Europe is the less. As well as if a Promontory were, as well as if a Manor of a friend's or if your own were: Any man's Death diminishes me because I am involved in Mankind, And therefore never send to know for whom the bell tolls; it tolls for thee. - John Donne (1572-1631), Devotions Upon Emergent Occasions, #6 This Island’s Mine, Chet Raymo No man is an island...
  • 153. Just as a body, though one, has many parts, all its many parts form one body, so it is with Christ. For we were all baptized by one Spirit so as to form one body… Now if the foot should say, “Because I am not a hand, I do not belong to the body,” it would not for that reason stop being part of the body. And if the ear should say, “Because I am not an eye, I do not belong to the body,” it would not for that reason stop being part of the body. If the whole body were an eye, where would the sense of hearing be? If the whole body were an ear, where would the sense of smell be?.... But God has put the body together, giving greater honor to the parts that lacked it, so that there should be no division in the body, but that its parts should have equal concern for each other. If one part suffers, every part suffers with it. - 1Cor. 12:12-27 I am involved in mankind
  • 154. Just as a body, though one, has many parts, all its many parts form one body, so it is with Christ. For we were all baptized by one Spirit so as to form one body… Now if the foot should say, “Because I am not a hand, I do not belong to the body,” it would not for that reason stop being part of the body. And if the ear should say, “Because I am not an eye, I do not belong to the body,” it would not for that reason stop being part of the body. If the whole body were an eye, where would the sense of hearing be? If the whole body were an ear, where would the sense of smell be?.... But God has put the body together, giving greater honor to the parts that lacked it, so that there should be no division in the body, but that its parts should have equal concern for each other. If one part suffers, every part suffers with it. - 1Cor. 12:12-27 By 1500, every part suffered  Though the 14th-16th centuries, the Papacy was the center of intrigue, lavish spending on building projects, military maneuvering, and corruption – nepotism, pluralism, absenteeism, and simony  From 1309-1377 the “Bishop of Rome” resided in Avignon, France (residence, below) and took a part in French politics (there were more French cardinals than Italian).  Scandal and partisanship racked the Church from 1378- 1414 when 2 men reigned as Pope simultaneously and their military forces fought each other.
  • 155. The Church was sick... ...and needed a Doctor One was at hand in a young (22 yr. old) man who joined the Augustinian Order in 1505 in Erfurt, Germany, devoted himself to fasting, prayer, and frequent confession but suffered from deep spiritual despair. In 1508, the Dean of the newly founded University of Wittenberg sent for him to teach theology there and continue his own studies, which earned him his Doctorate in Theology in 1512. Cries for reform were sounded by many, including English Bible translator John Wycliffe (1330-1384), Czech reformer/martyr John Hus (1369-1415), Greek scholar Thomas Linacre (1360-1524), his pupil, Dutch humanist Erasmus (1466-1536) and English scholar John Colet (1467-1519).
  • 156. But now, apart from the Law the righteousness of God has been made known… This righteousness is given through faith in Jesus Christ to all who believe. There is no difference between Jew and Gentile for all have sinned. All fall short of the glory of God and all are justified freely by his grace through the redemption that came by Christ Jesus. - Rom. 3:21-24 He came to see this as central works status
  • 157. Where, then, is boasting? It is excluded. Because of what law? The law that requires works? No, because of the law that requires faith. For we maintain that a person is justified by faith apart from works of the law. -Rom. 3:27-31 For by grace you have been saved through faith. This is not your own doing; it is the gift of God, not a result of works, so that no one may boast.. -Eph. 2:8-9 Adam and Eve (Magdalen College, Oxford University)
  • 158. Why 1517? Pope Leo X needed cash  Second son of Lorenzo the Magnificent, ruler of the Florentine Republic, elevated to the Papacy in 1513  Needed to finance a costly war that succeeded in securing his nephew as duke of Urbino, and because he began an extensive renovation of St Peter's Basilica in Rome  So, he authorized Johann Tetzel, a Dominican priest, to sell indulgences in German lands.  Albert, Archbishop of Mainz, borrowed heavily to pay for his church rank and was deeply in debt so he agreed to allow the sale in his territory in exchange for a cut of the proceeds  Few questioned the practice- it was a “win-win”. People got a guarantee of forgiveness and the hierarchy got the proceeds. Pardon my indulgence Pope Leo X’s reign was noteworthy in that he later only narrowly escaped a plot by some cardinals to poison him.
  • 159. Got forgiveness? Such was the attraction of these “tickets to heaven” that people in Saxony traveled to other German territories to purchase them. Some German princes did not go along with this practice, especially Frederick III, Elector of Saxony (right, who otherwise supported Leo X and was almost made HRE).
  • 160. When the people of Wittenberg came to their priest for the Sacrament of Confession, they presented their plenary indulgences. They paid good silver money for their forgiveness! Surely they didn’t need to repent of their sins or perform onerous penance! But one of their professors, that troubled Augustinian monk (now 34), Dr. Martin Luther, a man who overcame a spiritual struggle to under- stand the Good News of freely-given grace, was outraged that they had paid money for what was theirs as an unearned gift from God. He felt compelled to expose the fraud stripping $$ from pious people and so announced a debate on whether or not indulgences had the spiritual value that Church agents claimed. The (true?) story- that he posted a set of 95 theological propositions (“theses” for university academics and other interested persons to use as discussion points) for all to see on the Wittenberg Univ. church door. Pennies for Penance
  • 161. This is necessary The first and chief article is this: Jesus Christ, our God and Lord, died for our sins and was raised again for our justification. All have sinned and are justified freely, without their own works and merits, by His grace, through the redemption that is in Christ Jesus… This is necessary to believe. This cannot be otherwise acquired or grasped by any work, law or merit. Therefore, it is clear and certain that this faith alone justifies us ... Nothing of this article can be yielded or surrendered, even though heaven and earth and everything else falls. – Martin Luther, Smalcald Articles
  • 162. Luther burns the Bull publically (above). But what will the Emperor do? What will the German princes do? When in doubt, call a meeting! Specifically, a ”Diet” or Imperial conference of the Emperor and all the princes, to meet in the city of Worms in 1521 Frederick the Wise obtains a safe conduct for Luther (guess what? It wasn’t safe!) This is necessary 1520 Pope Leo issues a Bull accusing Luther of teaching serious errors. But by that time 300,000 copies of his 95 theses are in print. “Printing is the best of God’s invent- tions”, Luther says. Augustinian monks rally to his cause (against the Dominicans).
  • 163. Will the Emperor force the theologian to eat crow at the Diet of Worms? Luther at the Diet of Worms by Anton von Werner, 1877
  • 164. “God help me! Amen.”  When Luther appears before the Diet, they demand that he recant all his works (no options- this is not a debate!)  NB: back then there was no such thing as “freedom of religion.”  He must recant or else he will be opposing his Church (the Body of Christ!) and his Emperor (whose authority comes from God)  His answer: “My conscience is a prisoner of God’s Word. I cannot and will not recant, for to disobey one’s conscience is neither just nor safe. God help me. Amen”  The Diet returns this edict: “Luther is a convicted heretic… no one shall give him shelter…his books to be erased from human memory”  But by the time this condemnation was published, Luther had vanished. Almost everyone thought he had been “eliminated.”
  • 165. Luther remained in hiding for a year and spent his time in prayer and in translating the Bible into German, a version still in use today. Amazingly he wasn’t. Instead his Elector wished him away to the Wartburg, a castle in Eisenach.
  • 166. What do you think? Was Luther right to obey the dictates of his own inner voice (conscience) and disobey direct orders of the ruler of his country and the head of his church? Why or why not? On what basis ? Legally? Morally? Spiritually? Under what circumstances might you do the same today? Should there be consequences (physical, legal, etc.) that result for you in following your inner convictions? Must the State or the Church allow you to express them freely? If the latter, do you agree that everyone should have the same right of religious freedom, even those you don’t agree with, may- be atheists, Rosicrucians, pagans, Satan-worshippers, or Muslims? Was Luther right to defy the Emperor? Martin Luther and Philipp Melanchthon (by Lucas Cranach the Elder)
  • 167. A person is bound to follow his conscience that he may come to God, the end and purpose of life.... It follows that he is not to be forced to act in a manner contrary to his conscience... nor... be restrained from acting in accordance with his conscience, especially in matters religious. ... the exercise of religion, of its very nature, consists... in those internal and free acts whereby people set the course of their life toward God. No human power can either command or prohibit acts of this kind.... Injury is done to the person and to the order established by God for human life, if free exercise of religion is denied in society... Religious acts whereby people... direct their lives to God transcend by their very nature the order of terrestrial and temporal affairs.... However, it {government} would clearly transgress the limits set to its power, were it to presume to command or inhibit religious acts. Religious freedom is good, says the Pope “Declaration on Religious Freedom on the Right of the Person and of Communities to Social and Civil Freedom in Matters Religious” - Pope Paul VI (1965)
  • 168. End of Lesson 5 Challenges and Controversies in the course of Christian history Part 1: Formulation and Reformation
  • 169. Lesson 6: Division and Diversity Challenges and Controversies in the course of Christian history Part 1: Formulation and Reformation
  • 170. Post-1521, the church took on the look…
  • 171. …of a club, a volunteer organization, or... Army • Rigid, formal organization (units, divisions, etc.) • Top-down rule... • ...by appointed officers... • ...who give orders... • ...that must be obeyed • Many regulations • Individuals do not take initiative themselves • Individuals cannot leave freely (AWOL, desertion) • Some were forced into the organization (e.g. drafted) Club • Organized loosely • Ruled democratically • Decisions are often made by consensus agreement... • ...influenced by interested, passionate members who... • ...persuade, not order • There are rules, but few • Everyone can contribute • Everyone can join/leave at will • People are there because they want to help
  • 172. Extended Family • Relationships clear (parent, uncle, niece, etc.), not democratic but... • Who holds power, gives orders can be informal, undefined • Few formal rules, some dictated by family traditions • Orders taken seriously, but not always obeyed • People are practically born into it (member by infant baptism)... • ...and trained mostly by elder’s example • Spontaneity, creativity, play …even ,of a family Army • Rigid, formal organization (units, divisions, etc.) • Top-down rule... • ...by appointed officers... • ...who give orders... • ...that must be obeyed • Many regulations • Individuals do not take initiative themselves • Individuals cannot leave freely (AWOL, desertion) • Some were forced into the organization (e.g. drafted)
  • 173. In England, Christianity’s future… 1501 Arthur, Prince of Wales, first-in-line to succeed Henry VII as King of England, weds Catherine, daughter of King Ferdinand & Queen Isabella of allied Spain. Both are only 15 yrs old. 1502 Just after returning to Ludlow Castle in Wales, both become seriously ill. Arthur dies. Catherine recovers; goes to live in a royal palace. To maintain strong ties with Spain, Henry and Isabella sign a treaty to betroth his other son (also Henry, only 9 yrs old) to Catherine. It is prohibited by Canon Law, so he petitions the Pope for an an- nulment of her previous marriage (to Arthur). 1503 Pope Julius II grants the annulment , leaving the way clear for the widow to wed the new Prince, once he comes of age, which they do in 1509, although the legality of the marriage remains in some doubt.
  • 174. …Hangs on the birth of a male heir 1509 Henry becomes King of England. He is the very model of an observant and pious Catholic 1516 After a stillbirth, the death of her 1st child (at 7 weeks) and a miscarriage, Catherine finally gives birth to a healthy girl, Mary. 1521 Henry, with the help of his devout Catholic advisor, Thomas More, issues a ringing defense of the Church against the teach- ings of Martin Luther 1527 Henry, increasingly impa- tient for Catherine to give him and the Kingdom a male heir to the throne and enamored by another woman, Anne Boleyn (right), seeks a divorce from Catherine claiming that they were never really married.
  • 175. Schism follows divorce 1534 Parliament passes the Act of Supremacy, “recogni- zing” that Henry, as King of England, possesses “Royal Supremacy”, meaning he, not the Pope, is head of the Church in England. 1529 Pope Clement IV declines to act on Henry’s request, influenced by opposition of the Emperor who happens to be Catherine’s nephew. * Except for Anne who is beheaded after suffering three miscarri- ages trying to give Henry a son and earning the charge of treason. 1533 Henry marries Anne; the Archbishop of Canterbury declares the marriage valid and nullifies the former one with Catherine. The Pope excommunicates Henry and the archbishop. Anne has a baby (the future Queen Elizabeth) and everyone lives happily…....*