education

1. LANGUAGE TEACHING
• Traditional Approaches
• (1)Grammar- Translation Method
• (2) The Direct Method
• (3) The Audio-Lingual Method
• Modern Approaches
• (1)Natural Approach
• (2) The Communicative Approach(Communicative Language Teaching (CLT)
• (3) The Silent Way
• (4) Suggestopedia/Desuggestopedia
• (5)Community Language learning(counseling Learning)
• (6)Task-based Instruction/Approach
• (7) Total physical response Method
• (8)The Oral Approach and Situational Language Teaching
• (9) The Eclectic Approach
• Postmethod

2. Definitions
Definition of Acquisition , Learning,
approach, method, technique,
syllabus and curriculum

3. Curriculum
• In education, a curriculum (/kəˈrɪkjᵿləm/;
plural: curricula /kəˈrɪkjᵿlə/ or curriculums) is broadly defined as the
totality of student experiments that occur in the educational process. The
term often refers specifically to a planned sequence of instruction, or to a
view of the student's experiences in terms of the educator's or school's
instructional goals. A curriculum is a set of learning goals articulated
across grades that outline the intended content and process goals at
particular points in time throughout the school program.[3] Curriculum
may incorporate the planned interaction of pupils with instructional
content, materials, resources, and processes for evaluating the attainment
of educational objectives. Curriculum is split into several categories, the
explicit, the implicit (including the hidden), the excluded and the extra-
curricular.
• Curricula may be tightly standardized, or may include a high level of
instructor or learner autonomy.Many countries have national curricula
in primary and secondary education, such as the United
Kingdom's National Curriculum.

4. Curriculum
• Curriculum comes from the Latin word for
"running course," or "career," but when we
talk about curriculum it's always about school.
If you go to a school with a Liberal Arts
curriculum, you'll get an education in the
humanities with some science, but if you go to
a technical school with a hard-core
astrophysics curriculum, you probably won't
have to take any courses on poetry.

5. Syllabus
• The noun syllabus comes from the Late Latin word syllabus,
meaning “list.” When you teach a class you may be required to
make an outline of what you will expect the students to do in your
class. That’s the syllabus. A syllabus could vaguely mention the
topics that will be covered each week or it can be a detailed
synopsis of every reading assignment, homework expectation, and
exam question. Syllabus style is the teacher’s choice. The syllabus is
a "contract between faculty members and their students, designed
to answer students' questions about a course, as well as inform
them about what will happen should they fail to meet course
expectations." [3] It is also a "vehicle for expressing accountability
and commitment" . Over time, the notion of a syllabus as a contract
has grown more literal but is not in fact an enforceable contract.

6. Acquisition
• Language acquisition is the process by which humans
acquire the capacity to perceive and comprehend
language, as well as to produce and
use words and sentences to communicate. Language
acquisition is one of the quintessential human
traits, because non-humans do not communicate by
using language. Language acquisition usually refers
to first-language acquisition, which studies infants'
acquisition of their native language. This is
distinguished from second-language acquisition, which
deals with the acquisition (in both children and adults)
of additional languages.

7. Learning
• Learning is the act of acquiring new, or modifying and
reinforcing, existing knowledge, behaviors, skills, values,
or preferences and may involve synthesizing different types
of information. The ability to learn is possessed by humans,
animals, plants and some machines. Progress over time
tends to follow a learning curve. It does not happen all at
once, but builds upon and is shaped by previous
knowledge. To that end, learning may be viewed as a
process, rather than a collection of factual and procedural
knowledge. Learning produces changes in the organism and
the changes produced are relatively permanent.[2]
• Human learning may occur as part of education, personal
development, schooling, or training. It may be goal-
oriented and may be aided by motivation.

8. Definition of Approach, Method
&Technique
The difference between technique , method and
approach can be explained as follows:
An approach is a set of correlative assumptions
dealing with the nature of language teaching
and learning. An approach is axiomatic. 1t
describes the nature of the subject matter
to be taught. ..when we use the term approach we
mean that an idea or theory is being applied:
that whatever the teacher does , certain
theoretical principles are always borne in mind.

9. Approach Cont.
• An approach is a set of assumptions about the nature of language
and language learning, but does not involve procedure or provide
any details about how such assumptions should be implemented
into the classroom setting. Such can be related to second language
acquisition theory.
There are three principal "approaches":
• The structural view treats language as a system of structurally
related elements to code meaning (e.g. grammar).
• The functional view sees language as a vehicle to express or
accomplish a certain function, such as requesting something.
• The interactive view sees language as a vehicle for the creation
and maintenance of social relations, focusing on patterns of
moves, acts, negotiation and interaction found in conversational
exchanges. This approach has been fairly dominant since the
1980s.

10. Method
Method is an overall plan for the orderly presentation of
language material, no part of which contradicts, and
all of which is based upon, the selected approach.
A method is a plan for presenting the language
material to be learned, and should be based upon a
selected approach. In order for an approach to be
translated into a method, an instructional system must
be designed considering the objectives of the
teaching/learning, how the content is to be selected
and organized, the types of tasks to be performed, the
roles of students, and the roles of teachers.
Like an approach a method may either be structural,
functional or interactive:

11. Method Cont.
• Examples of structural methods are grammar
translation and the audio-lingual method.
• Examples of functional methods include the oral approach /
situational language teaching.
• Examples of interactive methods include the direct
method, the series method, communicative language
teaching, language immersion, the Silent
Way, Suggestopedia, the Natural Approach, Total Physical
Response, Teaching Proficiency through Reading and
Storytelling.
An approach is axiomatic, a method is procedural . It consists
of a number of techniques. Within one approach, there
can be many methods . ..

12. A technique is an implementation that actually takes
place in a classroom. A technique (or strategy) is a very
specific, concrete stratagem or trick designed to
accomplish an immediate objective. Such are derived from
the controlling method, and less directly, from the
approach.
Techniques must be consistent with a method, and
therefore in harmony with an approach as well. (Anthony
1963:63-7). A technique then is a one single procedure.

13. Approach , Method & Technique
Hierarchical System
Approach
Method 1
Technique
A
Technique
B
Method 2
Technique
C

14. Grammar-Translation Method
Main Features
• Used in teaching Classical languages such as Latin and Greek
• Help students to read and appreciate foreign language literature
• Translate vocabulary and grammar into native language
• Studying L2 grammar familiarize students with their L1.
The grammar translation method is a method of teaching foreign
languages derived from the classical (sometimes called traditional)
method of teaching Greek and Latin. In grammar-translation
classes, students learn grammatical rules and then apply those rules
by translating sentences between the target language and the
native language. Advanced students may be required to translate
whole texts word-for-word. The method has two main goals: to
enable students to read and translate literature written in the
source language, and to further students’ general intellectual
development.

15. History of GTM
• At first it was believed that teaching modern
languages was not useful for the development of
mental discipline and thus they were left out of the
curriculum. When modern languages did begin to
appear in school curricula in the 19th century,
teachers taught them with the same grammar-
translation method as was used for classical Latin and
Greek. As a result, textbooks were essentially copied
for the modern language classroom. In the United
States of America, the basic foundations of this
method were used in most high school and college
foreign language classrooms

16. Principles and goals of GTM
• There are two main goals to grammar-translation
classes. One is to develop students’ reading
ability to a level where they can read literature in
the target language. [2] The other is to develop
students’ general mental discipline. The users of
foreign language wanted simply to note things of
their interest in the literature of foreign
languages. Therefore, this method focuses on
reading and writing and has developed
techniques which facilitate more or less the
learning of reading and writing only. As a result,
speaking and listening are overlooked.

17. Method of GTM
• Grammar-translation classes are usually conducted in the
students’ native language. Grammar rules are learned deductively;
students learn grammar rules by rote, and then practice the rules
by doing grammar drills and translating sentences to and from the
target language. More attention is paid to the form of the
sentences being translated than to their content. When students
reach more advanced levels of achievement, they may translate
entire texts from the target language. Tests often consist of the
translation of classical texts.
• There is not usually any listening or speaking practice, and very little
attention is placed on pronunciation or any communicative
aspects of the language. The skill exercised is reading, and that is
only in the context of translation.

18. Materials for GTM
• The classroom materials for the grammar-translation
method depend on the textbook. Textbooks in the 19th
century attempted to codify the grammar of the target
language into discrete rules for students to learn and
memorize. A chapter in a typical grammar-translation
textbook would begin with a bilingual vocabulary list, after
which there would be grammar rules for students to study,
and sentences for them to translate.[1] Some typical
sentences from 19th-century textbooks are as follows:
• The philosopher pulled the lower jaw of the hen.
• My sons have bought the mirrors of the Duke.
• The cat of my aunt is more treacherous than the dog of
your uncle

19. Reception of GTM
• The method by definition has a very limited scope. Because
speaking or any kind of spontaneous creative output was
missing from the curriculum, students would often fail at
speaking or even letter writing in the target language.
• According to Richards and Rodgers, the grammar-
translation has been rejected as a legitimate language
teaching method by modern scholars:
• Though it may be true to say that the Grammar-Translation
Method is still widely practiced, it has no advocates. It is a
method for which there is no theory. There is no literature
that offers a rationale or justification for it or that attempts
to relate it to issues in linguistics, psychology, or
educational theory.

20. Influence of GTM
• The grammar-translation method was the standard way languages
were taught in schools from the 17th to the 19th century.
• Later, theorists began to talk about what a new kind of foreign
language instruction needed, shedding light on what the grammar
translation was missing. They supported teaching the language, not
about the language, and teaching in the target language,
emphasizing speech as well as text. Through grammar translation,
students lacked an active role in the classroom, often correcting
their own work and strictly following the textbook.
• Despite all of these drawbacks, the grammar-translation method is
still the most used method all over the world in language teaching.
This is not surprising as most language proficiency books and tests
are in the format of grammar-translation method; and henceforth
the use of the method continues

21. The Direct Method
• It was enforced at the beginning of the 20th century
• Students’ own languages were banished and every thing was to be
done through the language of instruction
• Translation was considered taboo
• Thus it established a concept of second language acquisition very
different from Grammar-translation method
• Most recently, it was revived as a method when the goal of
instruction became learning how to use a foreign language to
communicate.
• It got its name from the fact that meaning is to be directly
connected with the target language without translation.
• It became popular because GTM was not very effective in preparing
students to use the language communicatively.

22. Principles of The Direct Method
• The goals of the teachers who use the Direct Method is to make
students learn how to communicate in the target language.
• The role of the teacher is to direct students’ activities. The role of
students is less passive than in the GTM. Both teacher and students
work as partners in the teaching/ learning process.
• Interaction between students and teacher is teacher- directed.
Students converse with each other as well.
• Vocabulary is emphasized over grammar and oral communication is
seen as basic. Meaning is demonstrated through realia, pictures and
pantomime.
• Language is primarily spoken not written.
• The teacher tries to get students to self-correct whenever possible.
Syllabus is based on situations.

23. The Audio-Lingual Method
• Like the direct method, and has a role
different from that of the Grammar-
Translation Method
• Developed in USA DURING World War 2
• Based on behavioral psychology
• Some principles are similar to Direct Method
• But many are different, having been based on
concepts of behaviorism and descriptivism

24. Audio-lingual Method Cont.
• The emergence of the Audio-lingual Method resulted from the
increased attention given to foreign language teaching in the
United States .Toward the end of the 1950s , the need for a
radical change and rethinking of foreign language teaching
methodology was prompted by the launching of the first
Russian satellite in 1957. The U.S . Government acknowledged
the need for a more intensive effort to teach foreign languages
in order to prevent Americans from becoming isolated from
scientific advances made
by other countries.
• The National Defense Education Act (1958), among other
measures, provided funds for the study and analysis of
modern Ianguages for the development of teaching materials,
and for the training of teachers.

25. Audio-lingual Method Cont.
• The method was widely adopted for teaching foreign
languages in North American colleges and universities.
• It provided the methodological foundation for
materials for the teaching of foreign languages at
college and university level in the United States and
Canada, and its principles formed the basis of such
widely used series .
• Although the method began to fall from favor in the
late sixties , Audiolingualism and materials based on
audiolingual principles continue to be widely used
today.

26. Audio-lingual Method Cont.
• The theory of language underlying Audio-lingualism
was derived from a view proposed by American
linguists in the 1950s - a view that came to be known
as structural linguistics. Linguistics had emerged as a
flourishing academic discipline in the 1950s, and the
structural theory of language constituted its backbone.
An important tenet of structural linguistics was that the
primary medium of language is oral: Speech is
language. Since many languages do not have a written
form and we learn to speak before we learn to read or
write, it was argued that language is "primarily what is
spoken and only secondarily what is written" (Brooks
1964).

27. Audio-lingualism is Based on
Behaviorist Theory of Learning
• Foreign language learning is basically a process
of mechanical habit formation. Good habits are
formed by giving correct responses rather than
by making mistakes. By memorizing dialogues
and performing pattern drills the chances of
producing mistakes are minimized.
• Language is verbal behavior - that is, the
automatic production and comprehension of
utterances - and can be learned by inducing the
students to do likewise.

28. According to the Principles of the Audio-
ligual Method the meanings that the words
of a language have for the native speaker
can be learned only in a linguistic and
cultural context and not in isolation.
Teaching a language thus involves teaching
aspects of the cultural system of the people
who speak the language (Rivers 1964: 19-
22).

29. Drills in the Audio-lingual Method
• Drills and pattern practice are typical (Richards,
J.C. et-al. 1986):
• Repetition: the student repeats an utterance as
soon as he hears it.
• Inflection: one word in a sentence appears in
another form when repeated.
• Replacement: one word is replaced by another.
• Restatement: the student rephrases an utterance.

30. Examples of Drills
• Inflection: Teacher: I ate the sandwich. Student: I ate
the sandwiches.
Replacement: Teacher: He bought the car for half-price. Student: He
bought it for half-price.
Restatement: Teacher: Tell me not to smoke so often.
Student: Don't smoke so often!
The following example illustrates how more than one sort of drill
can be incorporated into one practice session:
“Teacher: There's a cup on the table ... repeat
Students: There's a cup on the table
Teacher: Spoon
Students: There's a spoon on the table
Teacher: Book
Students: There's a book on the table
Teacher: On the chair
Students: There's a book on the chair

31. Advantages of Audio-lingual Method
• Listening and speaking skills are emphasized and,
especially the former, rigorously developed.
• The use of visual aids is effective in vocabulary
teaching.
• The method is just as functional and easy to
execute for larger groups.
• Correct pronunciation and structure are
emphasized and acquired.
• It is grounded on a solid theory of language
learning.

32. Disadvantages
• The behaviorist approach to learning is now discredited.
Many scholars have proved its weakness.
• It does not pay sufficient attention to communicative
competence.
• Only language form is considered while meaning is
neglected.
• Equal importance is not given to all four skills.
• It is a teacher-dominated method.
• It is a mechanical method since it demands pattern
practice, drilling, and memorization over functional
learning and organic usage.
• The learner is in a passive role; the learner has little control
over their learning

33. Gattegno’s Silent Way
• It shares principles with Cognitive Code Approach and TG linguists
• Teacher’s role is a subordinate to that of the learner
• Language is not a product of habit- formation but engaged in
formulating hypotheses
• Students develop their own inner criteria for correctness
independent from the teacher
• Teacher plays the role of a technician who repairs flaws and
damage
• The role of students is to make use of what they know
• The teacher works with students and the students work with the
language
• For most students-teacher interaction the teacher is silent
• Student-student interaction is desirable

34. Silent Way Continued
• The Silent Way is a language-teaching
method created by Caleb Gattegno that makes
extensive use of silence as a teaching technique.
Gattegno introduced the method in 1963, in his
book Teaching Foreign Languages in Schools: The
Silent Way.[1] Gattegno was critical of
mainstream language education at the time, and
he based the method on his general theories of
education rather than on existing language
pedagogy. It is usually regarded as an
"alternative" language-teaching method as
Richards groups it.

35. The Silent Way Cont.
The method emphasizes learner autonomy and active student participation.
It is named after the teacher’s silence.
Silence is used as a tool to achieve this goal; the teacher uses a mixture of
silence and gestures to focus students' attention, to elicit responses from
them, and to encourage them to correct their own errors.
Pronunciation is seen as fundamental to the method, with a great deal of
time spent on it each lesson.
The Silent Way uses a structural syllabus and concentrates on teaching a
small number of functional and versatile words.
Translation and rote repetition are avoided, and the language is usually
practiced in meaningful contexts. Evaluation is carried out by observation,
and the teacher may never set a formal test.

36. Rods and Charts in the Silent Way
• One of the hallmarks of the Silent Way is the use
of Cuisenaire rods, which can be used for anything
from introducing simple commands ("Take two red
rods and give them to her.") to representing objects
such as clocks and utensils. The method also draws on
color associations to help teach pronunciation; there is
a sound-color chart which is used to teach the
language sounds, colored word charts which are used
for work on sentences, and colored Fidel charts which
are used to teach spelling. While the Silent Way is not
widely used in its original form, its ideas have been
influential, especially in the teaching of pronunciation.

37. Process of the Silent Way
Teaching techniques
• As the name implies, silence is a key tool of the
teacher in the Silent Way. From the beginning levels,
students do 90 percent or more of the talking. Being
silent moves the focus of the classroom from the
teacher to the students, and can encourage
cooperation among them. It also frees the teacher to
observe the class. Silence can be used to help
students correct their own errors. Teachers can
remain silent when a student makes a mistake to give
them time to self-correct; they can also help students
with their pronunciation by mouthing words without
vocalizing, and by using certain hand gestures. When
teachers do speak, they tend to say things only once
so that students learn to focus their attention on them.

38. Techniques Cont.
• A Silent Way classroom also makes
extensive use of peer correction.
Students are encouraged to help
their classmates when they have
trouble with any particular feature
of the language. This help should be
made in a cooperative fashion, not a
competitive one. One of the
teacher's tasks is to monitor these
interactions, so that they are helpful
and do not interfere with students'
learning.

39. Reception and influence
As the year 2000 approached, the Silent Way was only used
by a small number of teachers. These teachers often work in
situations where accuracy or speed of learning is important.
Their working conditions may also be challenging, for example
working with illiterate refugees. However, the ideas behind the
Silent Way continue to be influential, particularly in the area
of teaching pronunciation.

40. Suggestopedia by Georgi Lozanov
• Like Gattegno, Lozanov believes that learning can
occur at a much faster rate than in traditional
approaches
• Lozanov declares that we set up psychological
barriers to learning and we should surmount
these barriers through desuggestions
i.e.,dessugestopedia
• The more confident the students feel the better
they learn
• Thus learning is facilitated in a relaxed
comfortable environment

41. Suggestopedia Cont.
• Music ,art and drama enable suggestions to
reach the subconscious and should be
integrated into the learning process
• Activating students imagination will aid
learning
• Students interact with each other and their
feeling is highly considered
• Indirect suggestions are activated through
music and direct ones through the teacher

42. Suggestopedia Cont.
The original form of Suggestopedia
presented by Lozanov made use of extended
dialogues about people from the students'
country visiting a country that uses the target
language, often several pages in length,
accompanied by vocabulary lists and
observations on grammatical points. Typically
these dialogues would be read aloud to the
students and were accompanied by music

43. Suggetopedia Cont.
The teacher’s attitude and behavior in the classroom
is one of the key elements which ensures the success
of a suggestopedic session. He or she has to establish
good human relations in the class so that students
would help and praise one another. “The teacher in a
suggestopedic course not only radiates effective
suggestive stimuli, but also coordinates environmental
suggestive stimuli in a positive way for students to
learn. One of Suggestopedia's unique goals is to
release learners' minds from the existing framework of
the <social-suggestive norms> (Lozanov, 1978. p. 252)”.

44. Suggestopedia Cont.
In order to stimulate the creativity of the
learners Suggestopedia uses almost all the
categories of art such as music, visual arts, and
stage art. The suggestopedic teachers use music
as songs in the elaborations and as classical
background music in the concert sessions. They
hang colorfully made grammar posters among
other art posters in the classroom, and
sometimes you give the group drawing tasks.
They move like actors in the theater, use puppets
like a show person, and read the textbook like
poets at their recital

45. The Communicative Approach
“Communicative Language Teaching” (CLT)
• Wilkins(1972) set up the basis for developing
communicative syllabuses for language
teaching
• He expanded his ideas in a book called
“Notional Syllabus” 1976
• The terms Notional-functional approach and
Functional approach are also used
• Notions such as ( time, sequence, quantity,
location, frequency) and functions such
as(requests, denials, offers , complaints) are

46. (CLT) Cont.
used to describe types of meaning within a social context
- Language learning is learning to communicate
- Meaning becomes clear through interaction between
listener-speaker and reader-writer
- Using authentic language in real context
- Target language is used as a vehicle for classroom
communication
- Effective communication is sought
- Comprehensible pronunciation is sought
- Reading and writing may start from the first day
- Translation may be used where necessary

47. Background of (CLT) .
• By the end of the sixties it was clear that the
situational approach., . had run its course. There
was no future in continuing to pursue the
chimera of predicting language on the basis of
situational events. What was required was a
closer study of the language itself and a return
to the traditional concept that utterances
carried meaning in themselves and expressed
the meanings and intentions of the speakers and
writers who created them. (Howatt 1984: 280)

48. CLT Background
This was partly a response to the sorts of
criticisms the prominent American linguist
Noam Chomsky had leveled at structural
linguistic theory in his now classic book
Syntactic Structures (1957). Chomsky had
demonstrated that the current standard
structural theories of language were incapable
of accounting for the fundamental
characteristics of language - the creativity and
uniqueness of individual sentences.

49. CLT Cont.
So Wilkins(1972), proposed a functional or
communicative definition of language that could
serve as a basis for developing communicative
syllabuses for language teaching. Wilkins's
contribution was an analysis of the
communicative meanings that a language learner
needs to understand and express. Rather than
describe the core of language through traditional
concepts of grammar and vocabulary, Wilkins
attempted to demonstrate the systems of
meanings that lay behind the communicative
uses of language.

50. Comparison Between The Audio-
Lingual Method and the
Communicative Language Teaching

51. Audio-lingual Method Communicative Language Teaching
1. Attends to structure and form
more than meaning.
2. Demands memorization of
structure-based dialogs.
3. Language items are not
necessarily contextualized.
4. Language learning is learning
structures, sounds, or words.
5. Mastery, or "over-learning" is
sought.
6. Drilling is a central technique.
7. Native-speaker-like
pronunciation is sought.
8. Grammatical explanation is
avoided.
1. Meaning is paramount.
2. Dialogs, if used, center around
communicative functions and are not
normally memorized.
3. Contextualization is a basic premise.
4. Language learning is learning to
communicate.
5. Effective communication is sought.
6. Drilling may occur, but peripherally.
7. Comprehensible pronunciation is sought.
8. Any device which helps the learners
is accepted - varying according to
their age, interest, etc.

52. Audio-lingual Method Communicative Language Teaching
9. Communicative activities only
come after a long process of rigid
drills and exercises.
10. The use of the student's native
language is forbidden.
11. Translation is forbidden at
early levels.
12. Reading and writing are deferred
till speech is mastered.
13. The target linguistic system will
be learned through the overt teaching
of the patterns of the system.
14. Linguistic competence is the
desired goal.
9. Attempts to communicate may be
encouraged from the very beginning.
10. Judicious use of native language is
accepted where feasible.
11. Translation may be used where
students need or benefit from it.
12. Reading and writing can start from
the first day, if desired.
13. The target linguistic system will be
learned best through the process of
struggling to communicate.
14. Communicative competence is the
desired goal (i.e. the ability to use
the linguistic system effectively)

53. The Natural Approach
• It was established in 1977 by the Spanish linguist
Tracy Terrell
• It is a modern term which is used to replace what
was traditionally called the Direct Method
• The principle is that an adult learner can repeat
the route to proficiency of the native speaking
child
• The idea is that learning can take place simply by
exposure to meaningful input

54. Natural Approach Cont.
• There is a difference between the Natural Approach
and the Natural Method (Direct Method)
• Unlike the Natural Method , the Natural Approach
places less emphasis on monologues and repetition of
drills and formal questions and answers
• In the Natural Approach there is much emphasis on
exposure to language and a prolonged period of
attention to what language learners hear
• The Natural Approach is an example of a
communicative Approach and it rejects the Audio-
Lingual method which view grammar as a central
component of language

55. Natural Approach Cont.
• Terrell stressed the importance of vocabulary and he
suggested the view that a language is essentially its lexicon
• It is based on a theory of language which assumes that
learning can not lead to acquisition (Acquisition/Learning
hypothesis)
• Acquisition is the natural process by which a child acquires
his mother tongue while learning needs formal teaching to
occur
• The Natural Approach is for beginners and is designed to
help them become intermediates
• The communication goals are expressed in terms of
situations, topics and functions in a syllabus which is
primarily designed to meet the needs of students

56. Learners’ Roles in the Natural
Approach
• Learners' roles are seen to change according to their stage of linguistic
development. Central to these changing roles are learner decisions on when
to speak, what to speak a bout, and what linguistic expressions to use in
speaking.
• In the pre-production stage students " participate in the language activity
without having to respond in the target language" (Krashen and Terrell 1983:
76). For example, students can act out physical commands, identify
student colleagues from teacher description, point to pictures, and so
forth .
• In the early-production stage, students respond to either-or questions,
use single words and short phrases, fill in charts, and use fixed conversational
patterns (e.g., How are you? What's your name?) .
• In the speech-emergent phase, students involve themselves in role play
and games, contribute personal information and opinions, and participate
in group problem solving.

57. Learners responsibilities in the Natural
Approach classroom:
• 1. Provide information about their specific goals so that
acquisition activities can focus on the topics and
situations most relevant to their needs,
• 2. Take an active role in ensuring comprehensible input.
They should learn and use conversational management
techniques to regulate input.
• 3. Decide when to start producing speech and when to
upgrade it.
• 4. Where learning exercises i.e.( grammar study) are to be
a part of the program, decide with the teacher the relative
amount of time to be devoted to them and perhaps even
complete and correct them independently.

58. Community Language Learning)CLL)
(Counseling Learning)
• Community Language learning (CLL) is a name of a method
developed by the American psychologist Charles A. Curran.
• It is based on the Counseling learning theory to teach language.
• The role of the teacher is ‘the counselor=knower’ and the role of
students are ‘clients= learners’ in the language classroom.
• Learner presents a message to the knower in (L1)
• Knower listens and other learners overhear.
• The knower translates it in (L2) and passes it to the addressed
learner.
• Learner repeats L2 message form to its addressee.
• Learner replays (from tape or memory) and reflects upon the
message exchanged during the language class.
• Learning is a “whole person” process and the learner is involved in
the cognitive tasks and in solution of affective conflicts.

59. Curran’s Acronym (SARD)
• A group of ideas concerning the psychological requirements for
successful learning are collected under the acronym SARD (Curran
1976: 6), which can be explained as follows.
• S stands for security. Unless learners feel secure, they will find it
difficult to enter into a successful learning experience.
• A stands for attention and aggression. CLL recognizes that a loss of
attention should be taken as an indication of the learner's lack of
involvement in learning, the implication being that variety in the
choice of learner tasks will increase attention and therefore
promote learning. Aggression applies to the way in which a child,
having learned something, seeks an opportunity to show his or her
strength by taking over and demonstrating what has been learned,
using the new knowledge as a tool for self-assertion.

60. R stands for retention and reflection. If the whole person is involved
in the learning process, what is retained is internalized and becomes
a part of the learner's new persona in the foreign language.
Reflection is a consciously identified period of silence within the
framework of the lesson for the student "to focus on the learning
forces of the last hour, to assess his present stage of development,
and to re-evaluate future goals" (la Forge 1983: 68).
D denotes discrimination. When learners "have retained a body of
material, they are ready to sort it out and see how one thing relates
to another" (la Forge 1983: 69). This discrimination process becomes
more refined and ultimately "enables the students to use the
language for purposes of communication outside the classroom" (la
Forge 1983: 69).

61. Objectives of CLL
Most of what has been written about CLL
describes its use in introductory conversation
courses in a foreign language.
The assumption seems to be that through the
method, the teacher can successfully transfer
his or her knowledge and proficiency in the
target language to the learners, which implies
that attaining near-native like mastery of the
target language is set as a goal.
Specific objectives are not addressed.

62. CLL Syllabus
Community language learning is most often used in the teaching
of oral proficiency, but with some modifications it may be used in
the teaching of writing, as Tranel (1968) has demonstrated.
CLL does not use a conventional language syllabus, which sets
out in advance the grammar, vocabulary, and other language
items to be taught and the order in which they will be covered.
If a course is based on Curran's recommended procedures, the
course progression is topic based, with learners nominating things
they wish to talk about and messages they wish to communicate
to other learners.
The teacher's responsibility is to provide a conveyance for these
meanings in a way appropriate to the learners' proficiency level.

63. CLL Procedure
1. Informal greetings and self- introductions were made.
2. The teacher made a statement of the goals and guidelines for the course.
3. A conversation session in the foreign language took place.
a. A circle was formed so that everyone had visual contact with each other and all
were within easy reach of a tape recorder microphone.
b. One student initiated conversation with another student by giving a message in
the L1 (Arabic).
c. The instructor, standing behind the student, whispered a close equivalent
of the message in the L2 (English).
d. The student then repeated the L2 message to its addressee and into the tape
recorder microphone as well.
e. Each student had a chance to compose and record a few messages.
f. The tape recorder was rewound and replayed at intervals.
g. Each student repeated the meaning in Arabic of what he or she had said in the L2
and helped to refresh the memory of others.

64. 4. Students then participated in a reflection period, in which they were
asked to express their feelings about the previous experience with total
frankness.
5. From the material just recorded the instructor chose sentences to
write on the blackboard that highlighted elements of grammar, spelling,
and peculiarities of capitalization in the L2.
6. Students were encouraged to ask questions about any of the above.
7. Students were encouraged to copy sentences from the board with
notes on meaning and usage. This became their «textbook" for home
study.

65. Criticism of CLL
• CLL procedures were largely developed and tested with
groups of college-age Americans. The problems and
successes experienced by one or two different client groups
may not necessarily represent language learning universals.
• Other concerns have been expressed regarding the lack of
a syllabus, which makes objectives unclear and evaluation
difficult to accomplish, and the focus on fluency rather
than accuracy, which may lead to inadequate control of the
grammatical system of the target language.
• Supporters of CLL, on the other hand, emphasize the
positive benefits of a method that centers on the learner
and stresses the humanistic side of language learning, and
not merely its linguistic dimensions.

66. [The techniques] help build rapport, cohesiveness, and caring that
far transcend what is already there ... help students to be
themselves, to accept themselves, and be proud of themselves . .
, help foster a climate of caring and sharing in the foreign
language class. (Moskowitz 1978: 2)

67. Total Physical Response Method (TPR)
• It is a new general approach to foreign language
instruction which has been named the “comprehension
approach”
• It gives much importance to listening comprehension
• It depends upon how children acquire their mother
tongue
• A baby spends many months listening to adult before it
ever says a word
• The child chooses to speak when it is ready
• It is James Asher’s total Physical Response method
which we try to introduce here

68. • It shares some principles with Winitz’s Comprehension
Approach(1981) in that (a)comprehension abilities precede
productive skills(b) the teaching of speaking should be
delayed until listening comprehension is established(c)
skills acquired through listening should be transferred to
the other skills(d)teaching should emphasize meaning
rather than form(e) teaching should minimize learner stress
• Imperatives are used to start different speech acts such as
requests(“ John, ask Mary to walk to the door.”), and
apologies (“Hassan , tell Hamad you are sorry.”)
• Asher also said that language should be internalized as
wholes or chunks rather than single lexical items.

69. Theory behind TPR
Asher does not directly discuss the nature of language or
how languages are organized. However, the labeling
and ordering of TPR classroom drills seem to be built
on assumptions that owe much to structuralist or
grammar-based views of language.
Asher states that " most of the grammatical structure of
the target language and hundreds of vocabulary items
can be learned from the skillful use of the imperative
by the instructor" (1977: 4).
He views the verb, and particularly the verb in the
imperative, as the central linguistic motif around which
language use and learning are organized.

70. Theory of TPA Cont.
• Asher's Total Physical Response is a "Natural Method" , inasmuch as Asher
sees first and second language learning as parallel processes. Second
language teaching and Iearning should reflect the naturalistic processes of
first language learning.
• Asher sees three processes as central:
(a) Children develop listening competence before they develop the ability to
speak. They can understand complex utterances that they cannot
spontaneously produce.
(b) Children’s ability in listening comprehension is acquired by responding
physically to parental oral commands.
(c) Once a foundation in listening comprehension has been established,
speech evolves naturally and effortlessly out of it.

71. Objectives of TPR
The general objectives of Total Physical
Response are to teach oral proficiency at a
beginning level. Comprehension is a means to
an end, and the ultimate aim is to teach basic
speaking skills through imperatives. A TPR
course aims to produce learners who are
capable of an uninhibited communication that
is intelligible to a native speaker.

72. Criticism of TPR
It has enjoyed some popularity because of its
support by those who emphasize the role of
comprehension in second language acquisition.
Krashen (1981), for example, sees performing
physical actions in the target language as a means
of 'making input comprehensible and minimizing
stress’. It is most useful for beginners and active
students. However, it places much emphasis on
imperative mood which is of limited utility to the
learner. It does not give the students the
opportunity to express their own thoughts in a
creative way.

73. TPR Criticism Cont.
• TPR represents a useful set of techniques and is
compatible with other approaches to teaching.
• TPR practices and activities do not require a
great deal of preparation by the teacher. It is also
aptitude- free, working well with a mixed ability
class, and with students having various
disabilities and class size is not a problem.
• Proponents of Communicative Language Teaching
would question the relevance to real-world
learner needs of the TPR syllabus and the
utterances and sentences used within it.

74. The Oral Approach &Situational
Language Teaching
• It was developed in the 1920s and 1930s by two
British linguists ,Harold Palmer and A.S. Hornby
• Palmer and Hornby classified the English
grammatical structures into sentence patterns (
later called “ substitution tables”) which could be
used to help internalize grammatical rules
• These sentence patterns were later incorporated
in the first dictionary of English as a foreign
language developed by Hornby and others in
1953 as The Advanced Learner’s Dictionary of
Current English

75. Oral Approach Cont.
• Thus the Oral Approach was firmly established as the
foundation for teaching English as a foreign language
for the British approach in TEFL/ TESL
• In this approach teaching begins with the speaking
skill. Language is taught orally before it is presented in
its written form.
• The target language is the language of the classroom
• New language points are presented and practiced
situationally
• Vocabulary selection procedure is followed to ensure
that an essential general service vocabulary is covered

76. Oral Approach Cont.
• Items of grammar are graded following the principle
that simple forms should be taught before complex
ones
• Reading and writing are introduced since a sufficient
lexical and grammatical basis is established
• Word order , structural words , the few English
inflections, and content words will form the material
for the teaching
• The link of structures to situations gave Situational
Language Teaching one of its distinctive features
• It continued to be widely used in the 1980s and led or
paved the way to Communicative Language Teaching

77. Applications of Oral Approach
• Few language teachers in the 1990s are familiar with the terms
Oral Approach or Situational Language Teaching, the impact of the
Oral Approach has been long lasting, and it has shaped the design
of many widely used TEFL&TESL textbooks and courses, including
many still being used today.
• One of the most successful ESL courses of recent times, Streamline
English (Hartley and Viney 1979), reflects the classic principles of
Situational Language Teaching, as do many other widely used series
(e.g., Access to English, Coles and Lord 1975; Kernel Lessons Plus,
O'Neill 1973; and many of L. G. Alexander's widely used textbooks,
e.g., Alexander 1967).
• As a recent British methodology text states, "This method is widely
used at the time of writing and a very large number of textbooks
are based on it" (Hubbard et al. 1983: 36).

78. Criticism and Conclusion
• In the mid-sixties, however, the view of language
learning, and language teaching underlying
Situational Language Teaching was called into
question and this led to Communicative Language
Teaching.
• But because the principles of Situational
Language Teaching, with its strong emphasis on
oral practice, grammar, and sentence patterns,
conform to the intuitions of many practically
oriented classroom teachers, it continues to be
widely used in the 1980s.

79. Comparing Methods
• Total Physical Response and Community Language Learning
stand in contrast at the level of design; TPR has a written
syllabus while CLL has no syllabus at all and operates from
what students prefer to learn.
• In TPR the teacher’s role is a drill master, director and
motivator. In CLL the teacher/knower is counselor
,supporter and facilitator.
• TPR learners are physically active and mobile. CLL learners
are sedentary and in a fixed configuration
• TPR emphasizes the importance of learners working alone
and neglects relationships among individuals. CLL is rooted
in communal relationship between learners and teachers as
supporters to each other, just like a concert.

80. Comparison Cont.
• At the level of procedure , we find that TPR practice is
largely mechanical , with much emphasis on listening . CLL
practice is innovative with much emphasis on production
• However, they share some elements in common; both TPR
and CLL see stress, defensiveness and embarrassment as
blocks impeding successful learning. They both see the
learners’ commitment , attention and group participation
as central to overcoming these barriers.
• They both view the stages of adult language learning as
recapitulation of the stages of childhood language learning
and both TPR and CLL consider memory and recall of
linguistic elements to be central issues.

81. Comparison Cont.
• TPR holds with CLL that the learner must be physiologically and
intellectually involved in learning as active participant.
• At the level of design neither TPR nor CLL assumes method –
specific materials, but both assume that materials can be locally
produced when needed.
• Some methods and approaches differ in the priority they give to
content versus instructional issues. Both Audio-lingual method and
some versions of Communicative Language Teaching see content as
crucial to language teaching i.e. seeing the syllabus as an essential
component to a language course.
• On the other hand, methods such as the Silent Way, the Natural
Approach and Total Physical Response give the syllabus a major
importance .

82. Evaluating Methods
• Evaluation refers to procedures for gathering data on the
dynamics, effectiveness, acceptability, and efficiency of a
language program for the purposes of decision making.
• If adequate evaluation data were available about the
methods we have, we expect to find answers to questions
such as
• What aspects of language proficiency does the method
address?
• With what kinds of learners (children, adults, etc.) IS the
method most effective?
• Is the method most effective with elementary, intermediate,
or advanced learners?

83. Answers to Previous Questions
• Answers to questions like these would enable decisions to be made
about the relevance of specific methods to particular kinds of
language programs.
• In order to answer these kinds of questions we look to four kinds of
data: descriptive data, observational data, effectiveness data, and
comparative data.
• Let us consider each of these in turn:
• Descriptive data are objectives (as far as possible) descriptions and
accounts , usually made by teachers, of specific procedures used in
teaching according to a particular method. They may take the form
of amplified records of lesson plans, with detailed comments on the
exact steps followed.

84. Answers Cont.
• Observational data refer to recorded
observations of methods as they are being
taught. Such data can be used to evaluate
whether the method implemented actually
conforms to its underlying philosophy or
approach. The observer is typically not the
teacher, but a trained observer (with a note pad,
tape recorder, video equipment, or some other
means) gathering the moment-to-moment
behaviors of teachers and learners in the
classroom.

85. Answers Cont.
• Effectiveness data
• The third kind of information needed is data on
the extent to which particular methods have
been found to be effective. What is needed
minimally for specific methods is (1) documented
studies of instances where a method has been
used with reference to a specific set of objectives
and (2) reliable and valid measures of gains in
proficiency made by learners relative to the
objectives

86. Answers Cont.
• Comparative data
• The most difficult kind of data to provide is
that which offers evidence that one method is
more effective than another if compared in
terms of attaining program objectives.

87. Technique
... A technique is an implementation that
actually takes place in a classroom.
It is a particular trick, strategy , or contrivance
used to accomplish an immediate objective.
Techniques must be consistent with a method,
and therefore in harmony with an approach as
well. (Anthony 1963:63-7). A technique then
is a one single procedure.

88. An approach is a set of correlative assumptions dealing with the nature of
language teaching and learning. An approach is axiomatic. 1t describes the
nature of the subject matter to be taught. ..when we use the term approach
we mean that an idea or theory is being applied: that whatever the teacher
does , certain theoretical principles are always borne in mind

89. A method is an overall plan for the orderly presentation of
language material, no part of which contradicts, and all of
which is based upon, the selected approach.
An approach is axiomatic, a method is procedural . It
consists of a number of techniques. Within one approach,
there can be many methods . ..

90. Eclectic Approach
• An approach which adopts any technique or
procedure, so long as it can be shown that it
results in successful learning.
• Probably most teachers of EFL if asked what
method they use ,they would say that their
approach is eclectic.
• By this, they mean that they do not follow any
single method, but rather that they use a
selection of techniques.

91. Eclectic Approach cont.
• Such an approach to TEFL has many
advantages.
• It is much more flexible and can easily be
adapted to suit a wide variety of teaching
situations.
• A teacher who approaches TEFL eclectically is
not fixed in one single method and often
keeps an eye open for new techniques and
approaches.

92. Eclectic Approach cont.
• Hence, a teacher must adopt techniques and
skills which are successful. If the techniques work
appropriately, he has to use them.
• A technique is successful if it achieves the
learning objectives.
• However it is important that teachers must be
aware with some of the theoretical principles
which lie behind the major trends in foreign
language teaching lest they become merely
practitioners of second-hand technology.

93. Task-based Instruction/Learning/
Approach
Task -based learning offers an alternative for language teachers. In a task-based
lesson the teacher doesn't pre-determine what language will be studied, the lesson
is based around the completion of a central task and the language studied is
determined by what happens as the students complete it. In a Task-Based
Approach students are confronted with approximations of the kind of task they are
going to perform outside the classroom and learn the relevant type of language
that these kinds of tasks involve official documents issued by municipal board the
students have to work with these kinds of documents in the language course. If
students want to develop the ability to write short reports of observations they
have made, the will be confronted with this kind of task in the classroom. Hence,
the Task -Based syllabus takes holistic functional tasks as the basic unit for the
design of educational activities
The lesson follows certain stages:

94. Pre-task
• The teacher introduces the topic and gives the
students clear instructions on what they will
have to do at the task stage and might help
the students to recall some language that may
be useful for the task. The pre-task stage can
also often include playing a recording of
people doing the task. This gives the students
a clear model of what will be expected of
them. The students can take notes and spend
time preparing for the task.

95. Task
The students complete a task in pairs or
groups using the language resources that they
have as the teacher monitors and offers
encouragement.

96. Planning
• Students prepare a short oral or written
report to tell the class what happened during
their task. They then practice what they are
going to say in their groups. Meanwhile the
teacher is available for the students to ask for
advice to clear up any language questions they
may have.

97. Report
• Students then report back to the class orally
or read the written report. The teacher
chooses the order of when students will
present their reports and may give the
students some quick feedback on the content.
At this stage the teacher may also play a
recording of others doing the same task for
the students to compare.

98. Analysis
• The teacher then highlights relevant parts from the
text of the recording for the students to analyze. They
may ask students to notice interesting features within
this text. The teacher can also highlight the language
that the students used during the report phase for
analysis.
• Practice
Finally, the teacher selects language areas to practice
based upon the needs of the students and what
emerged from the task and report phases. The
students then do practice activities to increase their
confidence and make a note of useful language.

99. The advantages of TBL
Task-based learning has some clear advantages:
• Students are free of language control. In all three stages they must use
all their language resources rather than just practicing one pre-selected
item.
• A natural context is developed from the students' experiences with the
language that is personalized and relevant to them.
• The students will have a much more varied exposure to language with
TBL. They will be exposed to a whole range of lexical phrases,
collocations and patterns as well as language forms.
• The language explored arises from the students' needs. This need
dictates what will be covered in the lesson rather than a decision made
by the teacher or the course book.
• It is a strong communicative approach where students spend a lot of
time communicating.
• It is enjoyable and motivating.

100. Conclusion
• PPP offers a very simplified approach to language learning.
It is based upon the idea that you can present language in
neat little blocks, adding from one lesson to the next.
However, research shows us that we cannot predict or
guarantee what the students will learn and that ultimately
a wide exposure to language is the best way of ensuring
that students will acquire it effectively. Restricting their
experience to single pieces of target language is unnatural.
• For more information see 'A Framework for Task-Based
Learning' by Jane Wills, Longman; 'Doing Task-Based
Teaching' by Dave and Jane Willis, OUP 2007.
Also see www.willis-elt.co.uk
• Richard Frost, British Council, Turkey