3. Cognitive Psychology, Fourth Edition, Robert J. Sternberg
Chapter 2
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Neuron and Neural Impulse
4. Cognitive Psychology, Fourth Edition, Robert J. Sternberg
Chapter 2
Methods for the studying the
human brain
•Postmortem studies
•Animal Studies
•Electrical Recordings
•Static Imaging Techniques
•Metabolic Imaging
5. Cognitive Psychology, Fourth Edition, Robert J. Sternberg
Chapter 2
Postmortem Studies
•Identify disorder and then examine
after death
– Researchers may trace a link between an
observed type of behavior and anomalies
in a particular location of the brain.
•Paul Broca – linked severe speech problems to
an area in the frontal lobe now called Broca’s
area
•Studies of Alzheimer's victims have le to
identify some of the brain structures involved
in memory
6. Cognitive Psychology, Fourth Edition, Robert J. Sternberg
Chapter 2
– Young, Holcomb, Yazdani, Hicks &
German (2004)
•Found that depression is associated with
a greater number of nerve cells in the
Thalamus being devoted to emotional
regulation
•Supported idea that structural
abnormality may lead to depression
– ¿Limitations?
•Cannot be performed on the living brain
•Do no offer insights into more specific
physiological processes of the brain.
7. Cognitive Psychology, Fourth Edition, Robert J. Sternberg
Chapter 2
Animal Studies: In Vivo
•Monitor activity of a single neuron
•Microelectrodes are
inserted into the brain
of the animal to
obtain single-cell
recordings of the
activiry of a single
neuron
•Selective lesioning to
observe resulting
funcitonal deficits
8. Cognitive Psychology, Fourth Edition, Robert J. Sternberg
Chapter 2
Animal Study: Single Neuron
Monitoring
•Disterhoft & Matthew (2003)
– Young versus old rabbits compared in learning
of eyeblink conditioning
– Hippocampal pyramidal neurons were
monitored
– Typically aging animals cannot learn the task
– Metrifonate, galanthamine, and CI-1017
injected into the aging rabbits
– This led aged rabbits to learn as quickly as
young controls
9. Cognitive Psychology, Fourth Edition, Robert J. Sternberg
Chapter 2
EEG-Human Studies
Dehaene-Lambertz, Pena, M., Christophe, &
Landrieu (2004)
Examined the language abilities of infants using
EEG
Electroencephalograph Research Example
EEG’s are recordings of the electrical frecuencies
and intensities of the living brain, typically
recorded over relatively long periods.
10. Cognitive Psychology, Fourth Edition, Robert J. Sternberg
Chapter 2
Positron Emission Tomography
(PET)
•Radioactive material is injected or
inhaled
•Participant is then scanned to
produce an image of the brain’s
activity
11. Cognitive Psychology, Fourth Edition, Robert J. Sternberg
Chapter 2
Magnetic Resonance Imaging
•Strong magnetic field passed through the
skull
•Uses the detection of radio frequency signals
produced by displaced radio waves in a
magnetic field
•Creates a detailed anatomical image of the
brain
12. Cognitive Psychology, Fourth Edition, Robert J. Sternberg
Chapter 2
Functional magnetic resonance
imaging (fMRI)
•fMRI imaging takes a series of images of
the brain in quick succession and then
statistically analyzes the images for
differences among them
•Brain areas with more blood flow have
been shown to have better visibility on
MRI images
•Better visibility is thought to be
correlated with brain activation
13. Cognitive Psychology, Fourth Edition, Robert J. Sternberg
Chapter 2
fMRI in Research
•Gauthier, Skudlarski, Gore & Anderson
(2000)
– fMRIs demonstrate that expertise for cars
and birds uses areas involved in face
recognition
14. Cognitive Psychology, Fourth Edition, Robert J. Sternberg
Chapter 2
Anatomy of the Brain
•Forebrain
– Cerebral cortex
– Basal ganglia
•Motor movement
– Limbic system
– Thalamus
– Hypothalamus
16. Cognitive Psychology, Fourth Edition, Robert J. Sternberg
Chapter 2
Function of Limbic System
•Emotion, motivation, memory, and
learning
– Controls mood and attitude
– Stores highly charged emotional
memories
– Controls appetite and sleep cycles
– Make us better to adapt our behaviors
flexibly in response to our changing
environment
18. Cognitive Psychology, Fourth Edition, Robert J. Sternberg
Chapter 2
Anatomy of Limbic System
•Amygdala
– Involved in anger and aggression
•Septum
– Involved in anger and fear
•Hippocampus
– Is important in the formation of memories
– Disruption results in deficits in declarative
memory but not in procedural memory
– Korsakoff’s syndrome
•Loss of memory function
20. Cognitive Psychology, Fourth Edition, Robert J. Sternberg
Chapter 2
Anatomy of Limbic System
•Thalamus
– Relay sensory information to the
cerebral cortex
– Control of sleep and walking
•Hypothalamus
– Important to metabolic behaviors,
eating, drinking, sexual behaviors, and
regulating emotions
22. Cognitive Psychology, Fourth Edition, Robert J. Sternberg
Chapter 2
Midbrain
•Location
– The midbrain extends from the pons to the
lower portion of thalamus
•Reticular activating system
– Controls respiration, cardiovascular function,
digestion, alertness, and sleep
Controls eye movement and coordination
23. Cognitive Psychology, Fourth Edition, Robert J. Sternberg
Chapter 2
Midbrain
•Brain Stem
– Vital in basic attention, arousal, and
consciousness
– Physicians make determination of brain death
based on the functions of the brain stem
– Physicians must determine that the brain stem
has been damaged so severely that various
reflexes of the head are absent for more than 12
hours
– The brain must show no electrical activity or
cerebral circulation of blood.
24. Cognitive Psychology, Fourth Edition, Robert J. Sternberg
Chapter 2
Hindbrain
•Medulla Oblongata
– Breathing, swallowing and digestion
•Pons
– Relay station
•Cerebellum
– Motor co-ordination, posture, and
maintaining balance.
26. Cognitive Psychology, Fourth Edition, Robert J. Sternberg
Chapter 2
Cerebral Cortex Principles
•Contralaterality
– Right side of brain controls left side of
body
– Left side of brain controls right side of
body
•Corpus Callosum
– Neural fibers connecting left and right
lobes
– Allows communication between right and
left sides of the brain
27. Cognitive Psychology, Fourth Edition, Robert J. Sternberg
Chapter 2
Cerebral Cortex Principles
•Localization of function
– Specific mental processes are
correlated with discrete regions of the
brain
•Hemispheric Specialization
– Each lobe of the brain has specialized
functions
28. Cognitive Psychology, Fourth Edition, Robert J. Sternberg
Chapter 2
Evidence for Specialization of Left
lobe
•Wernicke’s area
– Speaks fluently but nonsensically
– Not coherent, contains lexical and
grammatical errors
•Broca’s area
– Can understand everything said
– Patient can only respond in
monosyllabic words
29. Cognitive Psychology, Fourth Edition, Robert J. Sternberg
Chapter 2
Split Brain Studies
•Sperry (1960 - 1998)
– First to study patients with a split
corpus callosum
– Two lobes function independently
•Gazzaniga (1980’s- current)
– Two lobes function complimentarily
30. Cognitive Psychology, Fourth Edition, Robert J. Sternberg
Chapter 2
Split Brain Methodology
•Corpus
callosum
severed
•Techniques
used test each
half-brain
31. Cognitive Psychology, Fourth Edition, Robert J. Sternberg
Chapter 2
Split Brain Studies Demonstrate
Hemispheric Specialization
•Left Lobe
– Language functions (speech, song)
– Logical thought (writing, logic)
•Right Lobe
– Spatial-relation functions
– Perception of rhythm, abstract or
intuitive thought
32. Cognitive Psychology, Fourth Edition, Robert J. Sternberg
Chapter 2
Split Brain Demonstration
What would a split brain patient say they saw?
What would a split brain patient point to with their left
hand?
33. Cognitive Psychology, Fourth Edition, Robert J. Sternberg
Chapter 2
Lobes of the Cerebral Cortex
•Frontal
– Reasoning & Planning
•Parietal
– Touch, Temperature, Pain,
& Pressure
•Temporal
– Auditory & Perceptual
processing
•Occipital
– Visual processing
Figure 2.5 The components of a vertebrate motor neuron. The cell body of a motor neuron is located in the spinal cord. The various parts are not drawn to scale; in particular, a real axon is much longer in proportion to the size of the soma. From Kalat, J. Biological Psychology , 8th Edition Use image to discuss neuronal communication.
Young KA, Holcomb LA,Yazdani U, Hicks PB, and German DC., Elevated neuron number in the limbic thalamus in major depression. American Journal of Psychiatry, 161 , 1270-1277. http://www8.utsouthwestern.edu/findfac/research/0,2357,12533,00.html Other well known postmortem studies are Phineas Gage, deteriorated hippocampus of alzheimers patients, and Tan as mentioned in the text.
Describe the single neuron technique using image and corresponding action potentials such as the example of In Vivo research. Single neuron and the corresponding action potentials image created and used with permission by: Patricio O'Donnell, MD, PhD Professor of Neuropharmacology & Neuroscience Albany Medical College 47 New Scotland Ave. Albany, NY 12208 http://www.odonnell-lab.net/links.htm
Full cite of research: Disterhoft JF, Matthew Oh M. (2003) Modulation of cholinergic transmission enhances excitability of hippocampal pyramidal neurons and ameliorates learning impairments in aging animals. Neurobiol Learn Mem. 2003 Nov;80(3):223-33. Abstract: Four cholinesterase inhibitors have been approved by the US Food and Drug Administration for treating behavioral symptoms of Alzheimer's disease. Here we review our experiences with two cholinesterase inhibitors (metrifonate and galanthamine) and a muscarinic acetylcholine receptor agonist (CI-1017) in behavioral pharmacological and brain slice experiments in aging and young rabbits. Aging rabbits are impaired in their ability to acquire the hippocampus-dependent trace eyeblink conditioning task, as compared to young controls. A large proportion of aging animals cannot reach behavioral criterion in this task. Those that do learn, do so more slowly. In addition, the post-burst afterhyperpolarization and spike frequency accommodation is increased in hippocampal pyramidal neurons from aging animals, i.e., cellular excitability is reduced as compared to those from young animals. Metrifonate, galanthamine, and CI-1017 reduced the learning deficits observed in aging rabbits so that they learned almost as quickly as young controls. These cholinergic compounds also enhanced the postsynaptic excitability of hippocampal pyramidal neurons in vitro. Therefore, we propose that the amelioration of learning impairment with the cholinergic compounds may in part be due to the enhanced excitability of hippocampal pyramidal neurons. The potential relevance of our studies to further understanding the cellular and behavioral changes that occur with normal aging and Alzheimer's Disease is discussed. PMID: 14521865 [PubMed - indexed for MEDLINE]
Dehaene-Lambertz’s work with Infants presented at this website: http://www.unicog.org/ uses EEG in addition to other brain imaging methods. Dehaene-Lambertz, Pena, M., Christophe, A., Landrieu, P. (2004). Phoneme perception in a neonate with a left sylvian infarct. Brain & Language,88,26-38. Brain & Language , Vol 88(1), pp. 26-38. Abstract: We report the case of a neonate tested three weeks after a neonatal left sylvian infarct. We studied her perception of speech and non-speech stimuli with high-density event-related potentials. The results show that she was able to discriminate not only a change of timbre in tones but also a vowel change, and even a place of articulation contrast in stop consonants. Moreover, a discrimination response to stop consonants was observed even when syllables were produced by different speakers. Her intact right hemisphere was thus able to extract relevant phonetic information in spite of irrelevant acoustic variation. These results suggest that both hemispheres contribute to phoneme perception during the first months of life and confirm our previous findings concerning bilateral responses in normal infants. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2004 APA, all rights reserved)(journal abstract)
No X-rays or radioactive material is used. Provides detailed view of the brain in different dimensions.
Full paper cite: Gauthier, I., Skudlarski, P., Gore, J.C., Anderson, A.W. (2000). Expertise for cars and birds recruits brain areas involved in face recognition. Nature Neuroscience, 3 , 191-197. Image used by permission of author. This research examines whether the area of the brain activated for recognition of faces is also activated when bird and car experts examine pictures of birds and cars.
Korsakoff's syndrome presents symptoms of severe anterograde and retrograde amnesia, as well as confabulation.
Korsakoff's syndrome presents symptoms of severe anterograde and retrograde amnesia, as well as confabulation.
Gazzaniga, M.S. (1995). Principles of human brain organization derived from split-brain studies. Neuron, 14, 217-228.
Gazzaniga gave permission to use image. Source: Gazzaniga, Michael S., "The Split Brain Revisited," Scientific American , July 1998 This study is described in Gazzaniga, Michael S.(1988), Mind Matters Each hemisphere is presented with a different picture that is related to one of four cards placed in front of the split-brain patient. The right hemisphere sees the picture on the left (snowy scene), and the left hemisphere sees a picture on the right (chicken foot). Both hemispheres can see all of the cards. When asked to point to the picture related to the image seen, the left hand pointed to the shovel and the right hand pointed to the chicken head. The patient was then asked why the left hand was pointing to the shovel, since the left hemisphere controls language, they did not have an answer because the shovel is what fits with the information that is given to the left side of the brain. However the left hemisphere immediately made up a story about what it could see– the chicken and explained that the right hemisphere chose the shovel to clean out a chicken shed. This reveals the left brain’s interpreter in action.
Split brain patients are asked to stare at the black dot in the middle of the screen. Two different images are displayed simultaneously to each side of the brain. Information about wrench is on the left side, so would be processed by the right side of the brain which controls the left hand, thus a split brain patient would point to a wrench. The apple is on the right side and so would be processed by the left side of the brain which controls language so the patient will say apple.