1. RURAL SOCIOLOGY &
EDUCATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY

2. Sociology = Socius(latin) –
companion/associate+ logos(greek) – study or
science
sociology is the science of society
Auguste comte, the French philosopher, is
considered the “Father of sociology’.
Definition
Auguste comte: sociology as the science of
social phenomena subject to natural and
invariable laws, the discovery of which is the
object of investigation.

3. Branches of sociology
• Historical Sociology: The term historical sociology is, usually applied to the
study of social facts which are more than fifty years old. It is a comparative
study of social group.
• Political Sociology: It is the study of the interrelationship between society and
polity, between social structures and political institutions (N. J. Smelser).
• Economic Sociology: It is the application of explanatory models of sociology
to that complex of activities concerned with the production, distribution,
exchange and consumption of scarce goods and services.
• Sociology of Occupation: It investigates the causes of division of labour, the
specific occupation of the people like the physician, child labour, dockworkers
etc.
• Sociology of Religion: It analyses the religious behaviour of men from a
sociological point of view.
• Industrial Sociology: It is the sociology of industrial relations and industrial
activities of man.
• Urban Sociology: This branch of sociology deals with the city of the urban
community with urbanization.
• Rural Sociology: It is the sociology of rural life in the rural environment.
• Sociology of Education: It analyses the institutions and organizations of
education. It concentrates on educational system or individual schools and
colleges.

4. Rural Sociology
Definition
Bertand, ‘Rural sociology is the study of human relationships in rural environment.’
A. R. Desai: ‘Rural sociology is the science of rural society ... It is the science of laws of
the development of rural society.’
F. Chapin: The sociology of rural life is a study of rural population, rural social
organizations and the social processes.
Scope of Rural Sociology
The scope or the subject matter of rural sociology is the study of rural society with
all its complexities.
• Rural Social Life
• Rural social organizations: Self Help Groups, Cooperative movements, Farmers’
organization etc.
• Rural Social Institutions and Structure: family, marriage, caste, religion, panchayat
• Rural community and rural problems
• Social change and social control in rural social setup
• Rural social process
• Religion and culture in rural society
• Rural planning and reconstruction
• Differences between urban and rural society

5. Importance of Rural Sociology
a) Rural Population is in a Majority:
b) It Gives Complete Knowledge of Village Life:
c) Rural Reformation:
i) Organization:
ii) Economic Betterment
iii) Provide Technology and Systematic Knowledge in Farm
Production
iv) Solutions of Social Problems
v) Education
vi) Planning for Development
d) Rural Sociology Development Relationships of Village with
Industry.
e) Rural Sociology is Most Important in Agricultural Countries:

6. Nature of Rural Sociology
1. Use of Scientific Method: Almost all the methods of
scientific study viz. observations, interview schedule,
questionnaire method, case study, statistical methods etc. are
employed in the study of rural sociology.
2. Factual Study: It studies the social events, social relationship
and process in a factual manner. It also studies and analyzes
the facts and the underlying general principles and theories.
3. Discovery of Cause and Effect: Rural sociology formulates its
theories and laws on the basis of cause and effect
relationship.
4. Universal Laws: The laws formulated by rural sociology are
universal in nature.
5. Predictions: Since the laws formulated by rural sociology are
based on cause and effect relationship. It is possible to
predict the result.

7. Limitations of Rural Sociology
• 1. Lack of Objectivity:
• It is not possible to have objectivity in the study of rural sociology as in case of
natural science. While in the study of rural sociology and its problems the
investigator continues to remain as a part of the society he is studying. He has
own ideas and are influenced by the subject matter.
• 2. Lack of Laboratory:
• Rural sociology is not studied in laborites as a natural science. Because of this it
is not possible to verify and test the theory and principles of rural sociology.
• 3. Lack of Measurement:
• There is no definite and standard measurement for measuring units of rural
sociology.
• 4. Lack of Exactness:
• It is lack of objectivity and different to follow its laws and principles universally.
They are not acceptable at every point.
• 5. Lack of Prediction:
• Because of lacks objectivity and exactness the principles formulated by the rural
sociology are not always correct. As such predictions are not possible.
• 6. It is not possible to draw a line between the rural and urban areas. There is no
sharp demarcation to tell where rural area ends and urban area begins.
• 7. The science of rural sociology is not fully developed.

8. Relationship between Rural Sociology and Extension
Sl.
No.
Rural Sociology Extension
1. The subject matter is the study on rural people Extension provides non-formal education to
rural people for desirable changes in their
life.
2. It studies the attitude and behaviour of rural
people
It seeks to modify or change the knowledge,
skill and attitude.
3. It studies the needs and interest of rural society It helps rural people discover their felt and
unfelt needs, arouse interest by extension
techniques.
4. It analyses rural social relationship between
groups and organizations and leaders in rural
area
It develops the groups (viz. SHGs) and
organizations (viz. Farmers organizations)
and leader by imparting appropriate training
programme.
5. It studies the social situation and collects
social facts about rural society
Extension utilizes such social data for
building up extension programmes for rural
people.
6. Rural sociology investigates the social,
cultural, political and religious problems of
rural society.
It also studies these problems and formulate
extension programmes accordingly.

9. Indian Rural Society
A village society is a body of people living in a restricted, at some distance
from other similar groups. The majority of them are engaged in agricultural
activity all closely depending on each other economically and otherwise
having a vast body of experience and must have some sense of unity.
Characteristics:
 Close contact with nature
 Specific geographical location
 Agriculture is the main occupation.
 Size of the community is small.
 Low population density.
 Homogenous population
 Social mobility is low.
 Low degree of social differentiation.
 Social stratification is prominent.
 Social control is strong.
 Social interaction is informal & personal.
 Social solidarity is strong.
 Lower standard of living.

10. Item of Comparison Rural Society Urban Society
1.Occupation Agricultural/Farming Non-agricultural/Non-farm
2.Work Environment Open air, close to nature,
mostly live with
soil/water/plant/animal
Enclosed surrounding, away from
nature, dealing with trade,commerce
& industry
3.Family Type Joint & large,Work as a single
unit
Nuclear & Small,Dispersed
4.Size of Community Small size,More land/person Large Size, Less land/Person
5. Pop. Density Low High
6.Homogenity/Heterog
eneity
Relatively Homogenous Heterogeneous
7.Social stratification Low,Farm related enterprises
only
High,Various Professional &
Occupational groups
8.Social Interaction Few and Personal Numerous and Impersonal
9.Social Institutions Small and Simple Large and Complex
10.Social Mobility Low High

11. 11.Social Control Informal Control, Relate to values More of formal / legal control
12.Social Change Slow,static/stable/stereotyped life Very fast, Constant change of
style
13.Social solidarity Strong sense of
unit/belongingness
Diversity & independent living
14.Standardof living Low High
15.Economy type Subsistence Affluence
16.Type of commn. Simple & Occasional Complex,extensive/ frequent
17.Society A simple Unigroup society A complex multi-group society
18.Culture/Value
System
Sacred Secular
19.Mass media
exposure
Low High
20.Home amenities Few Many

12. Social Group
GROUP -CONCEPTS
I. A Group is a collection of two or more individuals, interacting and interdependent, who have come
together to achieve common goals. Generally, individual or families having -Common ancestry,
commonly shared territory, similar physical appearance and common interests ,we feeling and mutual
interest do live in groups.
II. A Collectivity (Collective) on the other hand, is a number of persons whose behavior is specifically
polarized around a temporary centre of attraction that leads to instant unit & interaction and that
persists only as long as the centre of attraction exists.
Collective Behaviour is the group behavior exhibited by a collectivity which is a relatively unorganized
pattern of social interaction being not guided by the usual norms of conduct
Forms of Collective Behaviour: Crowd, Audience, Publics, Social movements.
Crowd: It is the most common form of collective behavior that consists of a temporary collection of people
to react to a particular stimuli.The individuals in a crowd act in an impulsive way and are emotional,
spontaneous, uncontrollable, fractional and easily influenced.
Audienceis a number of persons present in the same place at the same time and subject to the same
stimulus. Audiences include Recreation seeking, Information Seeking and conversational types .
Publics and Public Opinion: A public is a scattered group of people who share a common interest in a
particular issue having difference of opinions. It is a large, physically separated and dispersed group
having at least one mutual interest and are reached through mass media .
Social Movement: A social movement is a collectivity acting with some continuity to promote a change or
resist a change in the society or group of which it is a part.These are collective behaviours of
comparatively longer duration that requires time to develop and accomnplish its purpose.
Mass: A Mass is an anonymous group with a common focus of attention & similar response.

13. III. Category: An extensive group having no physical proximity or
interaction and at least one characteristic in common. Rural
population, Urban population etc.
IV. Aggregates : An aggregation is a collectivity of individuals who are
held together in a physical sense lacking any organised interaction
. Cinema Audience, Population of a state
All Aggregates are categories due to one common characteristic
but all Categories are not aggregates lacking any physical
proximity.
V. Ecological Entities: The distribution of human beings in relation to
land area to create land based relationships or units by way of
forming interrelated organizations with others in the society are
called Ecological Entities.
1. Natural Unplanned units with definite boundaries like Regions,
Communities and Neighbourhoods.
2. Deliberately planned /purposefully created units with clearly
defined boundaries to fulfil certain functions include Towns, Cities,
Tehsil, Districts, States or Countries.

14. Region: Refers to an area within which the combination of environmental and demographic factors
have created a homogeneity of economic and social structure.
Classification of Regions:
A. On The Basis of No of Indices used in Delineation
Natural Regions: Created on the basis of single geographic characteristics like soil, rainfall,
topography, forest and irrigations. Ex. Alluvial soils, Arid regions, high lands etc
Cultural Regions: A cultural region is an area in which the society is characterized by sufficient
homogeneity in pattern of behaviour including way of living, norms, beliefs and organizations to
differentiate it from other areas.
Agricultural Regions: Based on farming practices, climate, soil and other factors influencing
farming/cultivation. Ex. Wheat growing tracts, Paddy belts, Pastures.
Service Regions: Manmade regions formulated for administrative purpose by Govt. /Non govt.
Agencies
Composite regions: Based on a no of factors such as social, economic or geographic
B. On the basis of Sub-ordinate/Super ordinate relationship-Smaller Units within major homogenous
unit often showing sub regional heterogeneity thus reorganized and identified as a sub region.
Similarly Major region created due to zonations of the big nation on greatest possible areal
homogeneity.
C. Political Boundary between Regions:
The Community: It is the first social group in modern life that approaches self sufficiency .Community
refers to a group of mutually dependent people, living in a more or less compact/continuous
geographical area having a sense of belonging and sharing of common interests, values ,norms
and acting collectively in an organized manner to satisfy their chief needs through a common set
of organization and institutions.

15. Neighbourhoods: have been described as, “limited
geographical area in which the individuals and families
are known to each other & carry on intimate
associations together” (Anderson,1964).
Features of a Neighbourhood:
It is a smaller unit than a community
A community may be composed of several
neighbourhoods
It is not a self- sufficient unit like that of a community
Greater homogeneity, physical closeness, interpersonal
contact and dwelling proximity
More sociable entities based on personal relationships
Conflicts may be quite intense within neighbourhoods

16. Characteristics of a Group
• Plurality
• Physical togetherness
• Common goal & objectives
• Activity or actions
• Leaders & followers
• Internal and external conflicts
• Cohesion
• Group may be short lived or long lived
• Communication and interaction is essential for group
formation.
• Social processes are employed in adjusting in inter
group relationship.

17. Basis of Group Formation
• Physiological kinship
• Territorial proximity
• Similarity in religious beliefs
• Similarity in native language
• Occupational interest
• Economic interest
• Common utilisation of land
• Defence against common danger
• Compulsory attachment to same institution
• General living together

18. Classification Of Groups
Based on the quality or type of relationships:
Primary & Secondary Group
Formal & Informal Group
Gemeinschaft & Gesellschaft
Primary & Secondary Group
Primary Groups are characterized by intimate ,face to
face contact and informal personal relationships .
Ex. Family, Community and Group of close friends.
Secondary group are having formality of contacts and
impersonal relationships with fewer ties of sentiment.
Ex. Parent –Teacher, Farmer-Salesman, Students union,
trade union, Political party

19. Primary Group Secondary Group
Small size –often less than 20 or 30 persons Relatively bigger/large size groups
Personal/ Intimate relation among members Formal/Impersonal relation among members
Much face to face contact Contact(little face to face) via commn media
Permanent relation among members for a
long period of time
Temporary relation among members spending
little time together
Members well acquainted with each other
with a strong sense of we feeling/belonging
Members not well acquainted
Cooperation is direct/natural & spontaneous Cooperation is indirect & limited to purpose
Confined to a contiguous geographical area Spread over large regions
Group decisions are non-rational/traditional Group decisions are formal & more rational

20. Formal and Informal Group:
• Those groups who are organised having a
membership roll, procedure of operation and rigidly
enforced behaviour, elected office bearers are
called formal groups while groups which are
unorganized without any constitutional procedure
and rigidity are formal groups.
• Ex. Gram Panchayat, Regd. Societies and Labour
unions.
• Informal- Play groups. Friendship Groups.
Cliques are tightly knit groups based on friendship or
common interest and having a very strong primary
group feeling.

21. Gemeinschaft (Community) and Gesellschaft (Association)
Groups: German Sociologist Ferdinand Tonnies coined
these terms.
• Gemeinschaft (Community) It is a group in which most
relationships are traditional or personal or often
both.(Horton.1964). In the old Zamindari or Talukdari
system in India, the Land lord had a traditional relation
with his tenants who were personally known to him and he
had obligations for the welfare of the tenants who were
also fulfilling certain obligation towards the landlord.
• Gesellschaft (Association): It represents a group
relationship in which there is neither any personal
attachment nor the importance of traditional rights,
obligation or duties rather than based on bargaining and
clearly defined written agreements. It develops in business
associations. Association of wholesalers.

22. Groups based on Social Class:
Horizontal and Vertical Groups (Sorokin)
• Horizontal Groups: In this group, the members are
alike in status or positions in the social class. All
farmers and carpenters would be the members of
their respective horizontal groups in the villages
(caste groups).
• Vertical Groups are composed of members from
diff social strata and their membership cuts
vertically across the horizontal groupings in society.
A race of Caucasians, British nationals.

23. • Groups based on size:
• Small and Large Groups: Groups may vary in no of
members and placed on a continuum with the
minimum being two (Dyad) and without any
maximum limit. Small Groups(less than 30);
Family/Play group. Large Group-More members-
Labour Union. Political groups
• Groups based on Personal feeling of belongingness:
In-Group and Out-Group
• In-Group is the we-Group to which an individual has a
feeling of belonging and strong identification in a
particular situation. Ex. For a Hindu, all other hindus
cpnstitute his In-Group and members of other
religious groups as out groups. An out group is where
persons don’t feel any attitudinal link or attachment

24. Based on structure and type of membership:
Voluntary Group where membership is accepted
by choice of his own. Youth Club, Coop. Society.
Involuntary Group where one becomes member
by default like: by birth, by residence / location.
Delegate group that is chosen to represent as
delegates. Delegate to UNO to Global Summit etc.
Groups based on their Locality:
• Locality Groups that are active in a locality like
Siripur Puja Committee, BBSR Basti Uched
Sangram Samit.
• Territorial Groups formed to protect their interest
and existence.

25. Factors considered in Group Formation/Organisation
• A common interest/need
• Group-centered approach
• A specific and favourable community situation
• Tolerance /willingness to compromise
• Cooperation/coordination and dedication of the
members
• Duplication of the group
• Decision by consensus

26. Stages of Group Formation
1.Forming (Initiation)Stage: The first cum orientation stage.
The stage of confusion and uncertainty about the
structure, purpose and leadership.
2.Storming(Stimulation)Stage: This stage is characterized
by conflict, confrontation and criticism with the
expression of hidden fear and anxieties among group
members.
3.Norming Stage(Organisation)Stage: It depicts Group
cohesion and close relationships that develops after
setting up certain norms for the group. Members come
closer and understand each other.
4.Performing (Action)Stage: This is the functional stage of a
group where it attains the highest level of group maturity.
This stage is marked by team work, role clarity and task
accomplishment.

28. Motivation behind Group formation
Motivational factors in group formation/ Why people form groups
Motivation means movement or motion, an inner state that
energizes, activates or moves and directs human behavior towards
goals.
It is need satisfying and goal seeking behavior.
1. The satisfaction of needs:
a. Social needs—groups provide a vehicle for interacting with
other.
b. Security needs—groups can act as an effective buffer between
the employee and the demands/stresses of the organization.
c. Esteem needs—often fulfilled by the prestige of the group that
group membership conveys on the member.
2. Proximity and attraction
Proximity involves the physical walking distance between people
performing a job.
Attraction prompts group formation because of perceptual,
attitudinal, performance, or motivational similarities.
3. Group goals—individuals join groups because they're attracted to
the group's goals, although group goals are not always identifiable.

30. Role of social group in agricultural extension
• It enables the extension agent to have face to face
contact with a number of people
• At a time people can be easily motivated to
accept change due to group influence
• Less expensive than others method in stimulating
action
• In groups people can be enhanced and members of
groups can be involved for in depth contact

31. SOCIAL STRATIFICATION
 Stratum means Layer.
 Society similarly consists of several layers of certain
criteria.
 The hierarchical system exhibited in the societies
where by its members are placed in positions that
are superior or inferior in relation to each other in
form of layers is known as social stratification.
 Communities are socially stratified in various ways
like income, wealth, occupation , caste, creed,
family name, education, sex, and age which form
the different social classes.
 Caste and class are two imp form of social
stratifications

32. Definition:
• Lundberg(1968): SS is the division of population into two or
more layers, each of which is relatively homogenous and
between which there are differences in privileges,
restrictions, rewards and obligations.
• Gisbert:SS is the division of society into permanent groups
of categories linked with each other by the relationship of
superiority and subordination.
• Differentiation: It is considered the first stage in reaching
stratification. In this stage people are only sorted and
classified into groups. Stratification happens when
differentiation is continued/ fixed over a longer period of
time. Thus it is a temporary /short term sorting process to
assign people into groups on the basis of certain role and
status. Ex. Nomads, Civilised ,Natives, Foreigners, Africans
Anglo-Indians

33. Functions of Social Stratification:
1.A means of accomplishing essential jobs in the society:
Division of labour according to castes.
2.Regulation and control of Individual/Group
relationships and Participation: It gives access to
certain areas and restriction to others
3.Promotes social structure and integration: Caste
system has integrated Indian society.
4.Simplification of relations leading to easy socialization
5.Prevents Waste of resources
6.Promotes pride and prestige of a particular class:
Sambalpuri Sari, Heroism of Paikas
7.Enhances social progress through healthy competition:
Non-Bramhins study Sanskrit to reduce the age old
upper caste dominance .

34. Basis for Social Stratification:
1.Ethnic or racial criteria:
Basing on Origin & culture - Ex. Aryans,Dravidians
2.Social criteria : Based on Ascribed status ,Property and
ancestry-Land lord , Tenants. King. Subjects,
3.Universal criteria: Prevalent World over – Wealth,
Ancestry, Religion, Functional utility, biological Factors
4.General criteria:
i. Based on conquest- Winner and Losers
ii. Race and cultural diff.- Aryan, Dravidian
iii. Division of labour- Caste system
iv. Allocation of power/privileges- BPL,APL,OBC,SEBC

35. Forms of Social Stratification
• Caste System and Class System
Caste System
• The term CASTE is derived from Portuguese Casta
meaning lineage or breed or race whose Indian
equivalent is Jati or Varna. India is having more than
2800 castes & sub castes. The ancient Aryan society
was stratified into 4 Varnas like Bramhins,
Kshatriyas, Vaishyas and Shudras. The additional
caste of Harijans formed by Mahatma Gandhi
include all Outcastes which is a complex stratified
social structure of numerous sub-castes.

36. Definition: A caste is asocial category whose members are assigned a
permanent status within a given social hierarchy and whose contacts
are restricted accordingly.(Lundberg,1968)
• A.G. Green: Caste is a system of stratification in which mobility up and
down the status ladder, at least ideally may not occur.
• Hence a caste is a closed class having most rigid and clearly graded
type of social stratification and an extreme form of closed class system.
Characteristics of a caste system:
• It is determined by birth having no vertical mobility
• It is a closed class system with clearly demarcated status/role of
members.
• One is born into a caste, lives and dies in it.
• Strict restriction and punishment for violating caste norms
• Specific occupation for each caste as hereditary process
• Each caste has its own custom ,tradition and values
• Lower castes are less privileged deprived of civil and religious facilities
• Castes are endogamous groups restricting marriage and other social
functions
• Subordination and unrest among lower castes

37. Social Class
• While the caste system is confined to Indian subcontinent,
Social class is a type of stratification in modern societies
found universally.
• A no. of individuals having the same status and position in
society form a social class.
• Status refers to position of individual or a group in relation
to others in the society.
Definition:
Ogburn & Nimkoff: A social class is the aggregate of persons
having essentially the same social status in a given society
• Max Weber: It is the aggregate of individuals who have the
same opportunities of acquiring goods, and the same
exhibited standard of living.
• Social class is not a familial inheritance like caste hence can
be acquired and changed according to ones efforts, ability
and achievement. Inter class mobility is possible to other
strata.

38. Characteristics of a social class:
• A class is a status group that is achieved by ability
and not by birth.
• Class system is universal in nature unlike the caste
system
• Status ,prestige and position are enjoyed by rich
and affluent classes in every society
• Recognition of superiority and inferiority complex
among classes
• Members in a social class have an in group
solidarity and class consciousness
• Interclass mobility is possible and frequent in every
society

39. Characteristics SOCIAL CLASS SOCIAL CASTE
Pervasiveness Universal Peculiar to India
Status Achieved Ascribed
Change &
Mobility
Open system/Mobility
is expected/possible
Closed system
Religious Links Class is Non religious Connected to Hinduism
Transparency Permissive
&Progressive
Conservative/Reactionary
Material
posession
+vely correlated -ve ly correlated

40. CULTURE
• The total environment of the physio-social, bio-social and psycho-
social universes, man has produced and socially created
mechanisms through which the social products operate refers to
culture.
Definition
• Tylor - “Culture as that complex which includes knowledge beliefs,
morals, laws, customs and any other capabilities and habits
acquired by a man as member of society”.
• Maclver- “Culture is the expression of our nature, in our modes or
living and thinking, in our literature, in religion, in recreation and
enjoyment”.
• Hepple - “Culture includes all the material and non material traits
in our environment which are man made or modified by man and
transmitted from one generation to another by the process of
learning”.
• Culture can be defined as historically derived pattern of living of
an individual. It includes traditions, customs, folkways and mores.
All these ideas integrated together for pattern of living called
culture.

41. Characteristics of Culture
 All the societies in the world have culture but each society
has a different culture from one another. Indian culture –
African culture – Western culture.
 Culture is learned or acquired after birth and through life
consciously or unconsciously through agents influencing
directly or indirectly on individuals.
 Culture is a social and not individual heritage of man. One has
to learn the tradition, customs as the society in which he/she
is living.
 Culture is transmitted from one generation to another
generation during the process of socialization and is
disseminated among members of society.
 Culture is adoptive – It must adjust itself to external forces of
various kinds.
 Culture is integrative – culture has general tendency towards
consistency and integration so as to held society together.

42.  Culture is idealistic – it stands for ideal norms of human
behavior toward which persons are expected to strive.
 Culture is shared – Learned behavior and shared by all
members of society.
 Culture is gratifying. It satisfies the man’s bio-logical
and socio-culture needs- foods, clothing, shelter and
for various relationship with other individuals and
group.
 Culture is accumulating. This knowledge is preserved in
the form of books, films and pictures.
 Culture is not static but dynamic
 culture is continuously changing. The commonly way of
thinking, feeling, acting are continuously changing .e.g.
observing untouchability, praying god for cure of
diseases.

43. Functions of Culture
1. Culture provides us with design for living. It is always
learned and acquired.
2. Culture provides a series of pattern by which biological
and socio-cultural demands of group members are met
3. Culture provides a set of rules to ensure co-operation
of the individuals of a group in adjusting
environmental situation.
4. Culture provides individual a set of ready-made
definition of situation.
5. Culture helps in understanding and predicting the
human behavior
6. Culture provides us a guidepost or kind of map for all
our life activities.
7. Culture acts as a means of social control through
norms, folkway, and moves laws.

44. Importance of Culture
• Respects for elders, cooperation and help, mercy to poor etc
are behavioral patterns which are the components of
culture.
• Culture regulates the behavior of people.
• Concepts like family, state, nation, class are the products of
culture and helps coordination and division of labour
• Culture gives individuals or groups the feeling of unity with
the group.
• A culture change is the basic to extension, as through
extension efforts we seek to introduce changes in the
behavior of the people
• Culture change takes place through discovery and invention
and by diffusion and borrowing. The first comes from within
a society and culture, and the second from another culture
outside the society.

45. Structure of culture
The structure of culture consists of various units like
cultural trait, complexes and cultural patterns.
1. Cultural trait: - Any single idea going to form a culture
is called as cultural trait e.g. sari, dhoti and turbans are
all material traits and to shake hand to greet, to cover
face by sari to respect are non material trait.
2. Cultural complexes: - Cultural complex is combination
of unnaturally attached culture pattern. e.g. thread
ceremony in Hindu Brahmin
3. Cultural patterns: - is an objective expression of a way
of doing or believing that is common number of
people. It ranges from very simple to the very
complex. It becomes the behavior trait of children,
youth and adults.

46. Cultural Concepts
Socialization
• Socialization is the process by which an individual is inducted into his
social and cultural world.
• Through socialization man is formed into a social being, and no one can
avoid this process.
• Societies transform the untrained human into an effective member of
society using such agencies, means, and methods as are socially
acceptable.
Ethnocentrism: “Ethnocentrism is the tendency of man to consider his own
culture of high value and superior to all others, and judge other cultures
in terms of standard values that exist in his culture.”
Effects of Ethnocentrism
Ethnocentrism promotes loyalty to the group.
Ethnocentrism promotes greater conformity with in the group.
Ethnocentrism causes resistance to change in the culture.
Xerocentrism –Opposite of Ethnocentrism

47. • Acculturation:- Acculturation refers to that phenomenon that
occurs when people of different cultures come into continuous
contact, resulting in subsequent changes in the original cultural
patterns of either one culture or both. For example change in food
habit, dress, form of speech, values etc.
• Cultural continuity:- The cultural aspects both material and non
material do exits and disappear seldom. The past has been useful
to the people for present as well as future.
• Cultural inertia: - The resistance to the change in culture by an
individual or groups of the people has been termed as cultural
inertia. It has been sometimes and additional useless liability of
retaining the cultural behavioural that has no longer any utility.
• Cultural lag: - Strength and intensity of resistance to changes thus
varies because certain aspects of culture persist more than others.
Culture lag is tendency for non material aspects of culture persists
longer than that of material aspects and occurs when different
parts of culture change at an unequal rate, leaving some aspects
lagging behind others.

48. Elements of Culture
1. Customs:
• Customs as socially approved ways of acting.
• Customs are the accepted ways in which people do
things together.
• Customs are socially prescribed forms of behavior
transmitted by tradition
• Customs may also be defined as a habitual form of
meeting people, training the young, supporting the
aged etc are some of the customs of society.
• Our acting, our dressing, our worship are controlled to
a great extent by customs. We agree most of the
customs of the group to which we belong.

49. 2. Norms
• All societies have some norms or rules which
specify appropriate and inappropriate behavior.
• An individual is rewarded or punished as he
conforms to or deviate from the rules.
• Norms are the general rule that governs or
regulate social action.
• Norms are the blue print of the behavior, setting
limits within which individuals may seek alternate
ways to achieve their goals

50. 3. Folkways:
• Folkways are expected forms of behavior but
are not rigidly enforced
• Folkways are standard of behavior that are
socially approved but not morally significant.
• Breaking of folkways is not serious.
• The folkways are the right ways to do things
because they are the expected ways.
• Examples of folkways are: Good manners,
Entering home only after removal of shoes,
Lady touching the feet of her mother-in-law,
Rajput wearing a turban, Greeting others with
folded hands .

51. 4. Mores
• Mores may be defined as those customs, which are held to
be essential to ethical or moral values of people.
• Mores are the socially acceptable ways of behavior that do
involve moral standards (regulations) and violation of more
may result in severe social action or sanction, such as
ostracism (exclusion of individual or family from the village
or society).
• Society exerts pressure to conform the regular pattern and it
not followed individual gets penalty from society.
• Examples of Mores: Honesty is one of the recognized mores
of the society, Saluting the National Flag, Standing during
the playing of National Anthem, Monogamy (having one
wife or husband), Women and children first in the event of
crises

52. 5. Taboos
• Generally the term ‘more’ is used for the positive
action or things that ought to be done but the term
‘taboo’ is used for the negative action and for the
things that one ought not to do.
• In other word taboos are restrictions communicated
through verbal don’ts and are the unwritten laws of the
society.
• Taboo means forbid.
• It refers to the prohibitions of the types of behavior
because of some magical, supernatural (God) or
religious sanction
• Examples of taboo: Total abstinence (self denial) of
eating beef in a Hindu village (eating beef in Hindu
religion) and marriage within the family among Hindu it
is a taboo.

53. 6. Cultural laws: - These are consciously and deliberately
formulated behavior patterns. Men are aware of having
created them or certainty of having codified them. They
are rational and practical in character.
7. Belief: - Beliefs are fixed ideas in the mind and we tend
to hold them true, they are the facts but not always
scientifically true, yet handed down from generation to
generation and become the dogma of realization.
Beliefs are strong faith over non scientific facts.
Beliefs system is the view of individuals and group
about the world in which he lives.
A belief system may be defined as an organized body
of ideas, attitude and convictions centered around
values or things regarded as precious to the group.

54. 8.Rituals:
• Ritual is prescribed form of behavior for certain
occasions and certain actions are designated in
prescribed manner.
• Ritual may be defined as a pattern of behavior or
ceremony, which has become the customary way of
dealing with certain situations.
9.Ceremony:-It is more comprehensive concept within
the ritual folks. They are the established procedure
of formal and dignified ways to make and impress
the importance of an event or occasion. Generally it
is discussed as an aspect of religion. Religion is found
in all established form of activities. It may include
prayers worship. Examples of rituals: Playing with
crackers on ‘Diwali’. Celebration of Independence
Day

55. 10.Traditions: - Traditions are uniform sanctioned
habits of thought followed in a society. eg. Cow is
pious animal is an accepted thought in Hindu
people.
11.Conventions: These are customs regulating more
significant social behavior.
• Parents generally do not care to leave such
learning to chance.
• Parents instruct their children the conventions
though often they (parents) cannot explain why
the child must confirm
• Examples of Conventions: Being polite to others,
Respect to elders.

56. • Difference between Mores and Taboos
1 Mores refer to positive action .Taboos refer to negative action
2 Mores are the customs regarded by the members of the society as
vital or essential . Taboos are the customs which are forbidden
3 Things ought to be done. Things ought not to be done.
4 E.g. Monogamy, honesty etc E.g. eating of beef in Hindu religion
• Difference between Mores and Folkways
1 These are socially acceptable ways of behavior that involve moral
standards These are the customary ways of behaving in society
2 These are rigidly enforced and if not followed by a person the
individual gets severe penalty form the society Persons who do not
conform may be subjected to criticism or be considered ‘strange’
but would not necessarily penalized
3 If violated the group or society may be disturbed or divided If
violated will not have severe effect on society.
4 Patterns of behavior which are considered essential by the society
Expected form of behavior but not rigidly enforced
5 E.g. Monogamy, honesty etc E.g. Good manners, greeting others

57. Role of culture in Extension:
1. There is lot of difference between the culture and thinking of the
people in different societies. The extension worker try to understand
the cultural pattern of the area where he intendeds to introduce the
development programme.
2. Culture is dynamic and continuously changes because of internal as
well as external forces of stimuli. Community development aims at
bringing about the changes in the culture of rural people towards
desired goals. Scientific understanding of the culture is therefore
basic e.g. Improved pig raring in Muslim village is not possible
3. It is possible to record greater success when the improved practices
introduced are in familiar terms i.e. something that is already present
in the culture e.g. Improved plough with iron ploughshare.
4. Change is more likely to occur in those aspects of culture where there
is lack of adjustment or stress, then in those aspects, which are
established and fixed. e.g. Introduction of improved practices in areas
which are rehabilitated on account of floods or fire.
5. Change in technology is usually more readily accounted than change
in other aspects of culture e.g. Introducing of improved seed of a crop

58. Social Interaction/Social Process
• Social processes are the ways in which individuals
and groups interact, adjust and readjust and
establish relationships and pattern of behaviour
which are again modified
• The concept of social process refers to some of
the general and recurrent forms that social
interaction may take
• Interaction between individuals and groups
occurs in the form of social process.
• Social processes refers to forms of social
interaction that occur again and again.

59. Social Interaction
• Social interactions are reciprocal relationships which not only influence
the interacting individuals but also the quality of relationships.
• Gillin and Gillin, “By social interaction we refer to social relations of all
sorts in functions – dynamic social relations of all kinds – whether such
relations exist between individual and individual, between group and
group and group and individual, as the case may be”.
• Eldredge and Merrill say, “Social interaction is thus the general process
whereby two or more persons are in meaningful contact-as a result of
which their behaviour is modified, however, slightly”
• When the interacting individuals or groups influence the behaviour of
each other it is called social interaction.
• Social interaction may then be defined as that dynamic interplay of forces
in which contact between persons and groups result in a modifications of
the attitudes and behaviour of the participants.
The two basic condition of social interaction are
(i) social contact and (ii) communication.
Social interaction usually takes place in the forms of cooperation’s,
competition, conflict, accommodation and assimilation.
These forms of social interaction are called social processes

60. Social Process
• Social processes refer to forms of social interaction that occur
repeatedly.
• By social processes we mean those ways in which individuals and
groups interact and establish social relationships.
• There are various of forms of social interaction such as
cooperation, conflict, competition and accommodation etc.
• Maclver, “Social process is the manner in which the relations of
the members of a group, once brought together, acquire a
distinctive character”.
• Ginsberg says, “Social processes mean the various modes of
interaction between individuals or groups including cooperation
and conflict, social differentiation and integration, development,
arrest and decay”.
• Horton and Hunt, “The term social process refers to the repetitive
form of behaviour which are commonly found in social life”.

61. Types of Social Processes
• Social process can be positive or negative.
Accordingly, social process have been classified into
two broad categories, variously entitled ‘conjunctive
and disjunctive, ‘associative and dissociative’.
Associative Process
The associative or conjunctive social processes are
positive
This category of social processes include cooperation,
accommodation, assimilation and acculturation etc.
Dissociative Processes
Social process which leads to negative results is called
dissociative processes.
Competition and conflict etc. are examples of
dissociative social processes.

62. Associative Process
1.COOPERATION
Merrill and Eldregde, “Cooperation is a form of social interaction wherein two or
more persons work together to gain a common end”.
Fairchild, “Cooperation is the process by which the individuals or groups combine
their effort in a more or less organised way for the attainment of common
objective”,
Cooperation involves two elements: (i) Common end and (ii) Organised effort.
1. Cooperation is an associative process of social interaction which takes place
between two or more individuals or groups.
2. Cooperation is a conscious process in which individuals or groups have to work
consciously.
3. Cooperation is a personal process in which individuals and groups personally
meet and work together for a common objective.
4. Cooperation is a continuous process.
5. Cooperation is a universal process which is found in all groups, societies and
nations.
6. Common ends can be better achieved by cooperation and it is necessary for the
progress of individual as well as society.

63. Maclver and Page have divided cooperation into two main types
namely,
(i) Direct Cooperation:
• Under direct cooperation may be included all those activities in
which people do like things together.
• For example, playing together, working together, carrying a load
together
• The essential character of this kind of cooperation is that people
do such identical function which they can also do separately.
• This type of cooperation is voluntary
(ii) Indirect Cooperation:
• Under indirect cooperation are in included those activities in
which people do unlike tasks together towards a common end.
• For example, when carpenters, plumbers and masons cooperate to
build a house.
• This cooperation is based on the principle of the division of labour.
• In it people perform different functions but for the attainment of
the common objective.

64. A.W. Green has classified cooperation into three main categories such as
(i) Primary Cooperation:
• This type of cooperation is found in primary groups such as the family.
• There is an identify of interests between the individuals and the group.
• The achievement of the interests of the group includes the realization of
the individual’s interests.
(ii) Secondary Cooperation:
• Secondary cooperation is found in secondary groups such as Government,
industry, trade union and church etc.
• For example, in an industry, each may work in cooperation with others for
his own wages, salaries, promotion, profits .
• In this form of cooperation there is disparity of interests between the
individuals.
(iii) Tertiary Cooperation:
• This type of cooperation is found in the interaction between the various big
and small groups to meet a particular situation.
• For example, two political parties with different ideologies may get united
to defeat their rival party in an election.

65. Ogburn and Nimikoff divided cooperation into three main
types:
i. General Cooperation:
• When some people cooperate for the common goals then
there is cooperation, which is known as general
cooperation e.g. cooperation found in cultural functions
ii. Friendly Cooperation:
• When we want to attain the happiness and contentment
of our group we give cooperation to each other, then this
type of cooperation is known as friendly cooperation e.g.
dancing, singing, dating etc.
iii. Helping Cooperation:
• When some people work for the victims of famine or flood
then this type of cooperation is known as helping
cooperation.

66. Role of Cooperation:
• Cooperation is the most elementary form of social
process without which society cannot exist.
• Cooperation is the foundation of our social life.
• Cooperation for human beings is both a psychological
and social necessity.
• Cooperation helps society to progress.
• Progress can better be achieved through united
action.
• The outstanding progress in science and technology,
agriculture and industry, transport and communication
would not have been possible without Cooperation.
• Cooperation is an urgent need of the present- day
world.
• It is not only needed among the individuals and groups
but also among the nations.

67. ACCOMODATION
• Maclver and Page , “the term accommodation refers particularly to the
process in which man attains sense of harmony with his environment”.
• Ogburn and Nimkoff, “Accommodation is a term used by sociologist to
describe the adjustment of hostile individuals or groups.”
• Horton and Hunt “Accommodation Is a process of developing
temporary working agreements between conflicting individuals or
groups”.
• Gillin and Gillin “Accommodation is the process by which competing
and conflicting individuals and groups adjust their relationship to each
other in order to overcome the difficulties which arise in competition,
contravention or conflict”.
• It is the termination of competing or conflicting relations between
individuals, groups and other human relationship structures.
• It is a way of inventing social arrangement which enable people to work
together whether they like it or not.
• This is also referred to accommodation as ‘antagonistic cooperation’.

68. Characteristics of accommodation
(i) It is the End-result of Conflict:
• The involvement of hostile individuals or groups in conflict makes them realize the importance of
accommodation. Since conflict cannot take place continuously, they make room for accommodation. It is
the natural result of conflict. If there were no conflict, there would be no need of accommodation.
(ii) It is both Conscious and Unconscious Process:
• Accommodation is mainly an unconscious activity because a newborn individual accommodates himself
with his family, caste, play-group, school, and neighbourhood or with the total environment
unconsciously. Sometimes, individuals and groups make deliberate and open attempt to stop fighting
and start working together. For example, warring groups enter into pacts to stop war. Striking workers
stop strike after having an understanding with the management.
(iii) It is a Universal Activity:
• Human society is composed of antagonistic elements and hence conflicts are inevitable. No society can
function smoothly if the individuals and groups are always engaged in conflict. They must have to make
efforts to resolve conflicts, so accommodation is very much necessary. It is found in some degree or
other in every society all the time.
(iv) It is a Continuous Process:
• Accommodation is not confined to any particular stage or to any fixed social situation. Throughout the
life, one has to accommodate oneself with various situations. The continuity of the process of
accommodation does not break at all. It is as continuous as man’s breathing.
(v) It is a Mixture of both Love and Hatred:
• In the words of Ogburn and Nimkoff, accommodation is the combination of two kinds of attitude love
and hatred. The attitude of love makes people to cooperate with one another but it is the hate which
leads them to create conflicts and to get involved in them and then to accommodate with one another.

69. Forms or Methods of Accommodation
1. Admission of one’s Defeat:
• This method of accommodation is applicable between the conflicting parties of unequal
strength. The stronger group can pressurize the weaker group by its strength. The weaker
party submits to the stronger one out of fear or because of fear of being over-powered.
• For example, in war, the victorious nation imposes its will on the vanquished and the war
comes to close when the stronger party achieves a clear-cut victor) over the other. The loser
has to choose whether it will admit one’s own defeat or continue the conflict with the risk of
being eliminated together.
2. Compromise:
• This method is applicable when the combatants are of equal strength. In compromise, each
party to the dispute makes some concessions and yields to some demand of the other. The
“all or nothing” attitude gives way to a willingness to yield certain points in order to gain
others.
• In other words, it can be aid that this method is based on the principle of give and take. Both
the combatants should make some concessions or sacrifices voluntarily for each other
because they know that conflict would cause the sheer waste of their energy and resources.
3. Arbitration and Conciliation:
• Accommodation is also achieved by means of arbitration and conciliation which involves
attempts of the third party to resolve the conflict between the contending parties. For
example, the conflict between the employer and the employee, husband and wife, two
friends, labour and management are resolved through- the intervention of an arbitrator or a
conciliator or a mediator. Difference should, however, be noted between conciliation and
arbitration.
• The conciliator offers only suggestions in order to terminate a conflict. The acceptance of
these suggestions is up to the discretion of the contending parties. It has no binding force
upon them. Arbitration differs from conciliation in that the decision of the arbitrator is
binding on the parties concerned.

70. 4. Toleration:
• Toleration is the method of accommodation in which there is no settlement of dispute but there is only
the avoidance of overt conflict or open conflict. Toleration is found in the field of religion where
different religious groups exist side by side, having different policies and ideologies.
• For example, the co-existence of States with radically different economic and social system such as
communist and capitalist systems are the examples of toleration. Similarly, at many places we find
temples, churches, mosques etc. standing in close proximity to each other for centuries. After many
years of religious conflict this kind of religious toleration has been possible.
5. Conversion:
• Conversion is a method of accommodation in which one of the contending parties tries to convent his
opponents to his view of point by proving that he is right and they are wrong. As a result, the party
which has been convinced is likely to accept the view point of other party. For example, the conversion
of a large number of Hindus to Islam and Christianity was owing to their inability to tolerate the
sufferings of caste-restriction in India. This method may also occur in politics, economics and other
fields.
6. Rationalisation:
• Accommodation can be achieved by rationalisation. It is a method which involves the withdrawal of
contending party from the conflict on the basis of some imaginary explanations to justify his action. In
other words it means an individual or a group rationalises has behaviour by plausible exercises and
explanations.
• For example, the poor people, attributes their poverty to the will of God. Sometimes, students believe
that their failure in the examination is due to the defects in the valuation of their answer scripts by
examiners, they do not see the fact that their preparation for examination is quite inadequate.
7. Superordination and Subordination:
• The most common method of accommodation which is found in each and every society is
superordination and subordination. In the family the relationships among parents and children are
based on this method. In larger groupings whether social or economic the relationships are fixed on the
same basis.
• Even under a democratic order there are leaders who give order and the followers who obey order. A
caste society, for example, is a stratified society in which groups have accommodated to a low or high
position. When individuals or groups ordinarily accept their relative positions as a matter of fact,
accommodation is said to have reached a state of perfection.

71. Importance of Accommodation:
• Accommodation is the way which enable people to work together
whether they like it or not. Society can hardly go on without
accommodation. Since conflict disturbs social integration, disrupts social
order and damages social stability, accommodation is essentially
essential to check conflict and to maintain cooperation which is the sine
qua non of social life.
• It not only reduces or controls conflict but also enables the individuals
and groups to adjust themselves to changed conditions. It is the basis of
social organisation. As Burgess remarks: “Social organisation is the sum
total of accommodation to past and present situations. All the social
heritages, traditions, sentiments, culture, techniques are
accommodations………….. ”
• Accommodation makes for group life. It is indispensable in modem
complex society. In accommodation the barriers between the parties
have been partially broken down, social distance weakened and formal
relations established whereby groups can work together.
• Thus, accommodation is essential for social harmony. It is close to
cooperation and conflict and thus must take trends on both fields into
consideration.

72. Assimilation
• Assimilation is a fundamental social process; it is that
process by which individuals belonging to different
cultures are united into one.
• Assimilation in social relationships means that the
cultural differences between divergent groupings of
people disappear.
• For instance, American Indians adopted cultural
elements of whites abandoning their own culture.
• Acculturation is the first step to assimilation.
• The contact between the two groups inevitably affects
both; though it is natural that culturally weaker group
would do more of the borrowing from and would give
very little to the culturally stronger group. When two
cultures meet, the dominant culture becomes the
common culture of the two interacting cultures.

73. • According to Biesanz and Biesanz, “Assimilation is the
social process whereby individuals or groups come to
share the same sentiments and goals”.
• “Assimilation”, says E.S. Bogardus, “is a process
whereby attitudes of many persons are united, and
thus, develop into a united group”.
• As Ogburn and Nimkoff define, “Assimilation is the
process whereby individuals or groups once dissimilar
become similar, that it become identified in the
interests and outlook”.
• According to Park and Burgess, “Assimilation is a
process of interpenetration and fusion in which
individuals and groups acquire the attitudes and
values of other persons or groups, and by sharing their
experience and history, are incorporated with them in
a common cultural life”.

74. Characteristics of Assimilation:
1. Assimilation is an associative process.
2. Assimilation is a universal process. It is found in every place
and at all times.
3. Assimilation is a slow and gradual process. It is gradual as the
individual comes to share the expectations of another group
and slowly acquires a new set of values.
4. Assimilation is a unconscious process. Individuals are not
conscious that they discard their own values and acquire new
set of values.
5. Assimilation is a two-way process. It is based on the principle
of give and take.
6. Assimilation takes place when groups of individuals borrow
cultural elements from each other and incorporates them to
their own culture.
7. Contact between two groups essentially affects both. Both
the groups discard their cultural element and substitute them
with new ones.

75. Factors Conducive for Assimilation:
1. Toleration:
Tolerance helps people to come together, to develop contacts and to participate in common
cultural and social activities. When the dominant group is hospitable and tolerant towards
differences, the minority groups have a greater opportunity to participate in the total
community life.
2. Close Social Contact/Amalgamation:
• Close social contact is another leading factor which promotes the process of assimilation in a
greater way. When the people or group of different cultures come into close proximity with each
other, the assimilation process takes place very easily.
• For instance, in India the assimilation between Hinduism and Buddhism is possible due to the
close social contact among the members of these two religious groups.
3. Equal Economic Opportunity:
• The equal economic opportunities facilitate assimilation process. The people or groups having
equal economic position become more easily intimate. Thus, intimate relationship promotes
assimilation.
5. Common Physical Traits:
• Common physical traits or qualities of the people of different cultures also promote the process of
assimilation. The foreign immigrants of the same race can more easily assimilate than those with
different races.
• For instance, the Indians who live in America permanently can easily assimilate with the Indian
culture.
6. Cultural similarity:
• Cultural similarities between two groups of individuals promote assimilation. If there are
similarities between culture groups, assimilation is quick to take place. Without knowledge of
language, the individual remains outside the adopted society. The first step in assimilation into a
new society is, therefore, to a lean language.
• Assimilation can be hastened by such devices as learning of language, getting a job and joining a
union. But these things all take time.

76. Factors Hindering Assimilation:
1. Physical Differences:
• Differences in features, complexion of skin and other physical trait may also help or hinder in
assimilation.
2. Cultural Differences:
• Language and religion are usually considered to be main constituents of culture, Immigrants
having the same religion and language can easily adjust themselves in other area or country.
3. Prejudice:
• Prejudice is a barrier to assimilation. Prejudice is the attitude on which segregation depends
for its success. Prejudice also impedes assimilation between constituent elements within a
given society.
4. Sense of superiority and inferiority:
• Assimilation is hindered by the feelings of superiority and inferiority. The people who have
strong feelings of superiority, generally hate the people who suffer from a sense of
inferiority.
5. Domination and subordination:
• Assimilation between two groups of people is almost impossible where one group dominate
the other..
6. Isolation:
• People who live in isolation fail to establish social contacts with others. The isolated people
cut off entire social relationship with other people in society. Therefore, the process of
assimilation becomes very difficult.

77. Dissociative Processes
• Social process which leads to negative results is
called dissociative processes.
• These social processes result in disintegration of
society.
• These also known disjunctive social processes.
• Competition and conflict etc. are examples of
dissociative social processes.

78. Competition
• Competition is one of the dissociative from of social processes. It is actually the
most fundamental form of social struggle. It occurs whenever there is an
insufficient supply of anything that human beings desire, in sufficient in the
sense that all cannot have as much of it as they wish. Ogburn and Nimkoff say
that competition occurs when demand out turns supply. People do not complete
for sunshine, air and gifts of nature because they are abundant in supply.
• But people compete for power, name, fame, glory, status, money, luxuries and
other things which are not easily available. Since scarcity is in a sense an
inevitable condition of social life, competition of some sort or the other is found
in all the societies.
• According to, Sutherland, Woodword and Maxwell. “Competition is an
impersonal, unconscious, continuous struggle between individuals and groups
for satisfaction which, because of their limited supply, all may not have”.
• As E.S. Bogardus says. “Competition is a contest to obtain something which does
not exist in quantity sufficient to meet the demand.”
• According to Biesanz and Biesanz, “Competition is the striving of two or more
persons for the same goal with is limited so that all cannot share it”.
• Park and Burgess write, “Competition is an interaction without social contract”.

79. Characteristics
(i) It is Universal:
• Competition is found in every society. It is the natural result of the
universal struggle for existence.
(ii) It is impersonal:
• It is an interaction without social contact. They do not compete
with each other on a personal level but on the goal or the reward
they aim at. Due to this competition is known as an impersonal
affair.
(iii) It is an Unconscious Activity:
• Achievement of goal or the reward is regarded as the main object
of competitors.
• Their attention is focused on the reward or goals rather on the
competitors.
(iv) It is Continuous Process:
Competition never comes to an end. It is continuous. The desire
for status, name, fame, glory, power and wealth in an ever
increasing degree makes competition a continuous process in
human society.

80. Forms of Competition
1. Economic Competition:
• Generally, economic competition is found in the field of economic activities. Thus economic
competition takes place in the field of production, consumption, distribution and exchange
of wealth. For example, competition between two industrial sectors for the production of
goods.
2. Cultural Competition:
• Cultural competition is found among different cultures: It occurs when two or more cultures
try to establish their superiority over others. When one culture tries to establish its
supremacy over other cultures, it gives birth to cultural competition.
3. Social Competition:
• Social competition is mainly found in modern societies. For acquiring a high status,
popularity, name and fame in society people compete with each other. Social competition
plays a vital role in the determination of individual’s status in society.
4. Racial Competition:
• It takes place when one race tries to establish its superiority over the other. The whole
human society is divided into a number of races and there always arises an intense
competition among them. The competition between the Indo-Aryan race and Dravidian race
in India.
5. Political Competition:
• In all democratic countries, competition is inevitable among the various political parties and
even between the different members of a political party to obtain political power.

81. • Besides the above types, there are two other types, of
competition such as personal and impersonal competitions.
Personal competition means the rivalry between the people.
It occurs among the two opponents on their personal level.
In this competition, the competitions are well known to
each other personally. competition between two players in
a particular game
Impersonal competition, on the other hand, takes place
among the groups not among the individuals.
In this competition, the competitors compete with one
another not at personal level but as members of groups
such as business, social and cultural groups.
In India, competition between he various religious groups
like Hindus, Muslims, Christians, Sikhs etc.

82. Role of Competition:
Positive role
(i) Assignment of right individual to proper place:
• Competition assigns right individual to a place in the social system. It
provides the individuals better opportunities to satisfy their desires for new
experiences and recognition. It fulfills one’s desire for higher status, which
one can achieve by struggling and competing.
(ii) Source of motivation:
• Competition motivates others to excel or to obtain recognition or to win an
award. Competition stimulates achievement by lifting the levels of
aspiration for which some individuals work harder for success.
(iii) Conducive to progress:
• Healthy and fair competition is considered essential for economic, social as
well as technological and scientific progress. People make their best efforts
when they find themselves in competition. It is competition which has
made inventions and discoveries in different fields possible.

83. Besides the above positive functions, competition also
performs a few negative functions as well.
(i) Competition may lead to frustration:
• Competition may create emotional disturbances. It may
develop unfriendly and unfavourable attitudes among the
persons or groups toward one another. Unfair and unhealthy
competition has the most disintegrating effects.
(ii) Competition may lead to monopoly:
• Unlimited competition in a capitalist economy gives rise to
monopoly. It may cause fear, insecurity, instability and panic.
• For example, labourers unite for protecting their wages and
bureaucrats protect themselves through their associations.
(iii) Competition may lead to conflict:
• Competition, if it is uncontrolled, may lead to conflicts which
are considered detrimental to group solidarity or cohesion.
Sometimes it may become violent involving unethical and
unfair means to divert the competitors’ attention from
sportsmanship which is outcome of fair competition.

84. Conflict
• Conflict arises only when the attention of the competitors
is diverted from the object of competition to themselves.
• According to J.H. Fitcher, “Conflict is the social process in
which individual or groups seek their ends by directly
challenging the antagonist by violence or threat of
violence”.
• As K. Davis defines, “Conflict is a codified form of struggle”.
• According to A.W. Green, “Conflict is the deliberate attempt
to oppose, resist or coerce the will of another or others”.
• Gillin and Gillin say, “Conflict is the social process in which
individuals or groups seek their ends by directly challenging
the antagonist by violence or threat of violence”.

85. Characteristics
(i) It is a Universal Process:
• The cause of the universality of conflict is the increase of man’s
selfishness and his materialist tendency.
(ii) It is a Personal Activity:
• Conflict is personal and its aim is to eliminate the opposite party.
The defeat of the opponent is the main objective in conflict. When
competition is personalised it becomes conflict.
(iii) It is a Conscious Activity:
• Conflict is a deliberate attempt to oppose or resist the will of
another. It aims at causing loss or injury to persons or groups. The
attention of every party is fixed on the rival rather than on the
reward or goal, they seek for. So consciously, knowingly or
deliberately the parties make struggle with each other in conflict.
(iv) It is an Intermittent Process:
• It is not as continuous as competition and cooperation. It may take
place all of a sudden and may come to an end after sometime. If
the conflict becomes continuous, no society can sustain itself. So it
is an intermittent process.

86. Causes of conflict
• Malthus an eminent economist and mathematician says that
conflict arises only when there is shortage of food or means of
subsistence. According to him, the increase of population in
geometrical progression and the means of subsistence in
arithmetical progression is the main cause of conflict between the
people.
• According to C. Darwin, an eminent biologist, the principle of
struggle for existence and survival of the fittest are the main
causes of conflict.
• According to Frued and some other psychologists, the cause of
conflict lies in man’s inmate or inborn aggressive tendency.
• Some thinkers point out that the differences in attitudes,
aspirations; ideals and interest of individuals give rise to conflicts.
• Social change becomes cause of conflict. When a part of society
does not change along with changes in the other parts, cultural lag
occurs which leads to conflict. The old generation and new
generation conflict is the result of social change.

87. Type of Conflict
(i) Direct Conflict: When a person or a group injures, thwarts or destroys the
opponent in order to secure a goal or reward, direct conflict occurs; such as
litigation, revolution and war.
(ii) Indirect Conflict: In indirect conflict, attempts are made by individuals or
groups to frustrate the efforts of their opponents in an indirect manner.
George Simmel has also distinguished four types of conflict. These are:
(i) War: When all the efforts to resolve the conflict between two States fail,
war finally breaks out as it is the only alternative to the peaceful means of
solution. War provides only means of contact between alien groups.
(ii) Feud: Feud or factional strife does not take place among the states or
nations. This kind of strife is known as intra-group but not the inter-group
conflict.
(iii) Litigation: Litigation is a form of conflict which is judicial in nature. To
redress their grievances and to get justice people take recourse to legal
means in the court of law.

88. (iv) Conflict of Impersonal ideals:
• It is a conflict carried on by the individuals not for themselves but for an ideal. For
example, the conflict carried on by the communists and capitalists to prove that their
own system can bring in a better world order.
Gillin and Gillin has mentioned five types of conflict: personal, racial, class, political and
international conflict.
• Personal conflict is a conflict between two persons within the same group. Racial
conflict is conflict between the two races-whites and Negroes in South Africa. The class
conflict is a conflict between two class such as poor and rich or the exploiters and the
exploited. Conflict between the two political parties for power is the political conflict.
International conflict is the conflict between two nations such as between India and
Pakistan over Kashmir issue.
Besides the above, conflict can also be of the following types:
(i) Latent and Overt Conflict:
• Sometimes individuals or groups do not want to express their feeling of conflict due to
some reasons. The unexpressed or hidden conflict is known as the latent conflict. When
the individuals or groups feel bold enough to take advantage of a particular situation,
they express their feeling of conflict openly. Such open conflict is known as overt
conflict. For example, the latent conflict between India and Pakistan may become overt
in the form of war over Kashmir issue.
(ii) Personal and Corporate Conflict:
• Personal conflict arises among people within a group. It occurs due to various personal
motives like hostility, envy, treachery etc. Corporate conflict, on the other hand, arises
among groups within a society or between two societies. It is both inter-group and
intra-group conflict. For example, racial riots, communal riots, war between nations,
labour-management conflict etc.

89. Role of Conflict
Positive Functions:
(i) It promotes the solidarity and fellow-feeling:
• The conflict which promotes the solidarity and fellow-feeling within the groups and societies
is known as corporate conflict. For example, in war time cooperation and patriotism among
the citizens of a nation are more perfect than in peace time.
(ii) It enlarges the victorious group:
• The victory won through the process of conflict enlarges the victorious group. The victorious
group either increases its power or incorporates new territory and population
(iii) It leads to redefinition of value system:
• Conflict may lead to a redefinition of the situation by the contesting parties. Generally, the
parties which are in conflict with each other give up the old value system and accept new
ones when the conflict is over. In this way conflict may give rise to new types of cooperation
and accommodation.
(iv) It acts as a cementing factor in the establishment of intimate relations:
• Conflict in certain cases acts as a cementing factor in the establishment of intimate and
friendly relations among people or parties that were involved in it until a short time ago.
(v) It changes the relative status of the conflicting parties:
• Conflict changes the relative status of the contestants and of the non-contestants as well.
For example, after the Second World War, both Germany and Japan lost their status as great
powers.

90. Negative Functions
(i) It causes social disorder and confusion: War, a type of conflict,
may destroy the lives and properties of which are involved in it.
The modern mode of warfare which can destroy million of people
and vast amount of properties within a few minute, has brought
new fears and anxieties for the mankind.
(ii) It disrupts social unity and cohesion:
• Conflict is regarded as anti-thesis to cooperation. It disrupts
normal channels of cooperation. It is a costly way of settling
disputes. The results of intergroup conflict are largely negative.
Conflict weakens the solidarity of the group by diverting members’
attention from group objectives. It violates the national integration
in a greater way which may lead to the disorganisation of the
society.
(iii) It causes a lot of psychological and moral damage:
• The morale of individuals touches a new low in conflict on a
personal level. It makes people psychologically weak. In case,
conflict does not come to quick end, it makes the conflicting
individuals very weak and apprehensive about losing something.

91. Distinction between competition and Conflict:
i. Conflict takes place on a conscious level, competition is
unconscious.
ii. Conflict involves contact, competition does not.
iii. Conflict may involve violence, competition is non-
violent.
iv. Conflict is personal, competition is impersonal activity.
v. Conflict lacks continuity, competition is a continuous
process.
vi. Conflict disregards social norms, competition does care
for norms.
vii. Conflict diverts members attention from group
objectives, competition keeps members alert to the
goal or objective.

92. Cooperation, Conflict and Competition: Interrelations
• Cooperation is the basic form of human interaction in which men strive jointly with
each other for a good goal. Competition as a form of interaction occurs when two
or more persons or groups struggle for some goal. Conflict takes the form of
emotionalised and violent opposition in which the major concern is to overcome
the opponent as a means of securing a given goal or reward.
• It is direct and openly antagonistic struggle of persons or groups for the same
object or end, cooperation is an associative process, while competition and conflict
are dissociative processes. Competition and conflict divide men. But competition
differs from conflict in that the former is impersonal, while the latter is
personalised competition in a less violent form of struggle than conflict.
• The three forms of interaction thus appear to be distinct and separate. In reality,
however, cooperation, conflict and competition are interrelated. They are ever-
present processes in human relations. They are not separable things but phases of
one process which involves something of each.
• According to Cooley, conflict and cooperation are not separable things, but phases
of one process which always involves something of both. Even in the most friendly
relations and in the must intimate associations there is some point where interest
diverge. They cannot therefore cooperate beyond that point and conflict is
inevitable. The closest cooperation, for instance, within the family does not prevent
the occurrence of quarrels.

93. • Cooperation exists between men when their interests remain harmonious. But
according to Davis, there is no group whether family or the friendly group which
will not contain the seeds of suppressed conflict. Elements of conflict exist in all
situations, because the ends which different individuals try to attain are always to
some extent mutually exclusive.
• Conflict also involves cooperation. In very conflict, there is some hidden basis of
compromise or adjustment. For example, enemies in wartime cooperate under
certain rules while they proceed to annihilate each other with the accepted modes
and weapons of war. As end-result of conflict, there emerge arrangements and
agreements which give rise to cooperation.
• Regarding the end of a conflict Mack and Young comments, “At its most
rudimentary level, conflict results in the elimination or annihilation of the
opponent. In human society, however, most conflict ends in some sort of
arrangement or accommodation or in the fusion of the two opposing elements”.
• There is no competition which will not contain the seeds of conflict. As competition
becomes more personal, it shades into conflict. Conflict does not always occurs
when competition become acute. It only happens if attitudes of the competitors
become personal and hostile toward one another.
• But every competition will contain such attitudes, though suppressed. An individual
wishes not only to win the prize but beat another individual. Each knows that he
can win the prize only by defeating the other. When competition becomes
personalised in this way and becomes keener, hostility between the competitors
easily develops.
• Competition also involves cooperation. A competitive struggle implies some
agreement among the competitors. Members of football teams compete according
to rules prescribed for them.

94. Social Institution
A social institution is an interrelated system of
social roles and social norms, organized
around the satisfaction of an important
social need or social function.
• Social Institutions are organized patterns of
beliefs and behaviour that are centered on
basic social needs.

95. ELEMENTS OF SOCIAL INSTITUTION
• A group of people
• United by common interest
• Having material resources
• Having norms
• Fulfill some social need.

96. CHARACTERISTICS OF SOCIAL INSTITUTIONS
• Social institutions are universal.
• They vary from time to time and across cultures, in
terms of complexity, specialization, scope, formality
and organization. But their basic nature and purpose
are similar everywhere.
• Social institutions are resistant to change; they tend
to persist.
• Institutions are the means of controlling individuals.
• Institutions depend upon the collective activities of
men.
• The institution has some definite procedures which
are formed on the basis of customs and dogmas.
• Institution is more stable than other means of social
control.

97. • Every institution has some rules which must be
compulsorily obeyed by the individual.
• Each institution performs two types of social
function.
(a) primary functions, which are also called
manifest, explicit, or direct functions;
(b) secondary functions, which are also called
indirect, hidden, or latent functions.
Through these functions, social institutions fulfill
important needs in the society.
Five major institutions in rural sociology are
political, educational, economic, family and
religion

98. THE FAMILY
• The family is generally regarded as a primary social
institution.
• The institution of family is a basic unit in the
society, and the multifaceted functions performed
by it makes it a much-needed institution in a
society.
• It is one of the oldest social institution on the earth.
Although families differ widely around the world,
they also share certain common concerns in their
everyday lives.

99. EDUCATION
• Educational institution is responsible for the systematic
transmission of knowledge, skills and cultural values
within a formally organized structure.
• It is one of the most influential institutions in
contemporary societies.
• It is the process of socialisation, which begins
informally at home and then formally in educational
institutions.
• Education as an institution helps develop knowledge,
skill, attitude and understanding of the people and
strive to make them competent members of the
society.
• Education widens the mental horizon of the people and
make them receptive to new ideas.

100. ECONOMY
• Economy is the social institution that organizes and
ensures maintenance of society through the
production, distribution and consumption of goods
and services.
• The economy system is the complex of interrelated
institutions through which the economic activity of
man is expressed.
• Economy provides basic physical sustenance of the
society by meeting the needs for food, shelter,
clothing, and other necessary supply and services.
• Economic institutions include agriculture, industry,
marketing, credit and banking system, co-operatives
etc.

101. RELIGION
Religion is belief in super natural. Religion constitutes a set
of beliefs regarding the ultimate power in the universe,
the ideal and proper pattern of behaviour and ceremonial
ways of expressing these beliefs.
Religion is a social institution composed of a unified system
of beliefs, symbols, and rituals
— based on some sacred or supernatural realm
— that guides human behavior, gives meaning to life, and
unites believers into a community.
Religion is a system of faith and worship.
Religion also provides a foundation for the mores of the
society.
Taboos in various cultures have religious sanction.
Religion provides a means by which individuals can face
crises and ups and downs in life with strength and
fortitude

102. POLITICAL INSTITUTION
• Political institution is the distribution system of power
and authority which is used to maintain social order.
• Politics is the social institution through which power is
acquired and exercised by some people and groups.
• Government as political institution, administers the
regulatory functions of Law and order, and maintains
security in society.
• Form of government and its method of working
depends on the accepted patterns of behaviour in a
society.
• Development work is now-a-days a major
responsibility of the government.

103. Social Institution
Institution Major Roles Physical traits Symbolic traits Major Function
Family
(Nuclear/Joint)
Father Mother
Child
House
Furnishing
Ring,wedding
will
Procreation
Socialisation
Economic Employer
Employee
Producer
Consumer
Factory Office
Farm
Salary, Merit
award Emblem
Providing food
clothing, shelter
and
entertainment
Political Ruler Subject Public works Flag/ Symbol
code
Entertaining
laws, rules and
standards
Religious Priest Pastor Mosque Alter, Cross Promoting Faith,
hope, charity
and cooperative
attitude
Education Teacher Student Books Diploma Degree Socializing
Persons into
basic values and
practices of
society

104. Social Organisation
• Social Organisations are classes of human relationship
structures wherein people purposefully associate in
systematically arranged units to promote and achieve some
common purposes or interests that are not specifically
expressed in the institution.
• Each member has a formal status and role
• An organisation differs from an institution by its focus on a
narrowly limited purpose; it is a group of people organised
to pursue a specific objective.
• Social Orgartisations may operate within institutions,
though supporting it and, helping to achieve its objective.
• The form and structure of an organisation develops as
specialised activity, rules and regulations for operating, time
and place of meetings, are formulated

105. Characteristics of organisations
1. Clearly defined Limits: in keeping with a specific purpose and interest, the limits
within which an organisation operates are clearly defined goals, and activity is
polarised around these goals. Organisations may seek new goals to justify their
existence and continuation over a long period of time.
2. Formal membership, status and Role: There are several aspects of membership in
an organisation, membership is voluntary and motivated by specialised individual
interest.
3. Self contained Administrative structure: Each organisation has its own
administrative structure with roles and functions clearly defined and prescribed.
4. Operative principles, procedures and goals: All organisations have a carefully stated
constitution and by-laws, some times required by law, embodying objectives, rules,
regulations and operational procedures.
5. Provision for control, authority and decision making: The rules and regulations of
an organisation define authority, procedure for decision making and measures for
maintaining conduct and behaviour of members.
6. An outlet for Individual interest: An organization enables a group of persons
sharing a common interest in society to associate with one another, working
together towards realization of their interest.
7. A Channel for purposeful action: In fulfilling its goal, an organization may influence
social decisions and effect or stimulate social change.

106. Classification of organization
1. On the basis of political structure within which they are created.
 Prescribed organisation – Partially/fully govt. established, controlled
with compulsory membership
 Voluntary organisation- Arise as spontaneous expression of interest of
people in the society
2. On the basis of motives of participation.
 Personal pleasure and satisfaction giving
 Service and civic clubs and associations
3. On the basis of organizational operation.
 Open organisation – Programmes, goals and membership are open to
all
 Closed organisation - Programmes, goals and membership are known
only to members
4. On the basis of admission to membership
 Inclusive – Open to anyone who is interested
 Restricted – Restricted specific qualification
 Exclusive – admission is limited through selection by members of the
organisation

107. Development of Organisation
1.Period of Cultivation
2.Period of Formation
3.Period of normal functioning
4. Period of declining

108. Social Change
• Social change refers to an alteration in the material and
non-material culture of a society.
• Jones -Social change is a term used to describe
variations.
• Davi - “By social change is meant only such alterations
as occur in the social organization i.e. the structure and
functions of society.”
• It refers to change that occur in the structure and
functioning of a social system.
• It refers to the changes in roles of individuals perform;
Values and norms; Social structure and institutions;
Social relationships among people; Pattern of social
interaction; Functions performed by different groups
and institutions.

109. Nature/characteristics of Social change
1. Social change is a universal process. It is found in all societies
and all stages of social evolution.
2.. Social change does not always depend on the willingness of
society and its members.
3. Speed of social change differs from society to society and in the
same society. Many tribal and rural societies change at much
slower pace than industrial societies.
4. Social change has both qualitative and quantitative aspects.
Increase in number of household is an example of quantitative
change. Changes in the composition of households or changes
in roles are the examples of qualitative change.
5. Change is not synonymous with development; it may or may not
lead to development.
6. Social change is the result usually of both internal factors (the
community itself recognizes the need for change) and external
factors, e.g. industrialization, land reforms and urbanization.

110. Dimensions of Social Change
1. Structural Dimension: - Changes in the structural dimension
refer to the changes in the structural forms of society
involving changes in roles, emergence of new roles, changes
in class and caste structure and changes in social institutions
such as family, the government, the school or educational
system.
2. Cultural dimension: - Changes in the cultural dimension refer
to the change that take place in the culture of society such
as through discovery, invention, new technology, and
contact with other cultures involving diffusion and cultural
borrowing. It involves integration of new elements into the
culture and replacement of old forms. New forms and
elements may be rejected or modified.
3. Interactional Dimension: - Interactional dimension of social
change refers to changes in social relationships in society as
a result of different factors.

111. Factors of Social change
1. Physical Environment:- Physical factors also known as
geographical factors include all conditions of natural
environment namely climate, earth’s surface, water, season,
storms and earthquakes that are permanent and independent
of human existence. Many changes take place in natural
environment as the impact of natural conditions on social life.
Floods, earthquakes, droughts, famine and storms, change of
season etc.
2. Cultural Factors : The main cause of social change is the cultural
factor. Culture gives speed and direction to social change and
determines the limits beyond which social change cannot occur.
Non material factors are affected by the material culture.
3. Population Factors : Even changes in the quality of population
have an effect on the social organisation as well as customs and
traditions, institutions, associations etc. increase and decrease
of population, a change in the ratio of men and women, young
and old, have an effect on social relationships.

112. 4. Psychological Factors: Most sociologists regard psychological
factors as important elements in social change. The mores,
traditions, customs etc. in human society are perpetually
undergoing change. Change is the law of life. When changes
do not occur at the appropriate time revolution takes place,
wars are fought, epidemics spread, and changes are violently
introduced.
5. Biological Factors: Biological factors too have some indirect
influence upon social change. Among the biological factors is
the qualitative aspect of the population related to heredity In
the course of human history, it is remarked that there are
physical and mental differences among population distributed
in the different countries of the world. This amounts to
hereditary differences in races leading to ethnocentrism.
6. Technological Factors: The technological factor has immense
influence in social change. This change is usually in material
environment and adjustment we make to the changes often
modifies customs and social institutions. In this way, the
increase in the machines and methods due to new discoveries
has had a very great influence upon social relationships.

113. Patterns of change
1. Stable equilibrium occurs when there is almost no
change in the structure or functioning of a social
system , a completely isolated and tradition system in
which the rate of change is almost zero.
2. Dynamic equilibrium occurs when the rate of change
in a social system corresponds with the system’s
ability to cope with it. In extension work it is always
desirable to achieving a state of dynamic equilibrium
for the client system.
3. Disequilibrium occurs when the rate of change is too
rapid or undesirable, to permit the social system to
adjust. The social disorganization that accompanies
disequilibrium makes it as a painful and inefficient
way for change to occur in system.

114. Social values
• Value is anything desired or chosen by someone
• Relative worth, importance or preference given to any
object, idea or content of experience
• Social values constitute what is right and important in
society.
• Attitudes held by society that define what society
considers correct and of relative importance are
referred to as social values.
• According to Rogers, “abstract and often unconscious
assumption of what is right and wrong.
• Social values are attitudes, held by individuals, groups
or society as a whole, as to whether material or non-
material objects are good, bad, desirable or
undesirable.

115. Characteristics
• Values are created by society through interrelationship of its
members
• Values are socially shared and transmitted among members
and accepted by them
• Values are learned and help in meeting social needs
• Values are abstract attitudes and assumptions
• Value system vary from culture to culture
• Value system consists of ranked alternatives
• Values may differ in their effect upon individual and society
• Values involve emotion
• Value influence development of individual and society
• Values are stable and deep rooted but are subjected to
change over period of time, conditions and circumstances
• Values tend to be linked together harmoniously to form
patterns called value system

116. Functions
• Means for judging the social worth of individuals
• Ideal way of thinking and behaving
• Guidelines for individuals in their choices and
fulfilment of social roles
• Means of social solidarity and social control

117. Classification of Social Values
Spranger classified
• Theoretical value expressed in the urge for discovery of truth
• Economic value based on the criterion of usefulness
• Aesthetic value based around form and harmony
• Social value referring to interest of people on others
• Political value central round power
• Religious value meaning thereby a mystic sense of utility
Fraenkel (1976) classified
• Moral Value deciding particular alternative as better than other because of its just
or more humane
• Real value deciding based on real worth in terms of legal, aesthetic, etc.
• Market value based on how much can be paid - value in terms of price
• Personal value based on ones likes and preferences over things of similar nature
• Instrumental Value based on some standards that help us to achieve or acquire
other values
On the basis of degree of compulsiveness
• Folkways
• Mores
• Laws

118. On the basis of interaction/functioning
• Associative - Cooperation, Accommodation, assimilation
• Dissociative – Competition, Conflict
On the basis of institutional functioning
• Educational
• Economic
• Political
• Religious
• Family
On the basis of degree of attainment
Ultimate Values/ Dominant values
• Ultimate values express the general views of society and found most easily
in social institutions such as family, religion and government.
Intermediate
• Intermediate values are derived from ultimate values and can be
categorised into more reasonably attainable category e.g. freedom of
speech, religious freedom, non-discrimination, housing etc. in framework of
social institutions.
Specific Values /Attainable Values
• Specific values must be in conformity with the total value system of which
they form the smallest unit.