2. INTRODUCTION
Research approach and research design are two terms that are frequently used
interchange ably; however, research design is a broader plan to conduct a study,
and research approach is an important element of the research design, which
governs. A research design is the framework or guide used for the planning,
implementation, and analysis of a study. It is a systematic plan of what is to be
done, how it will be done, and how the data will be analysed.
It is a methodology for answering research questions or hypotheses that may
arise.
3. DEFINITIONS
• Research design is the master plan specifying the methods and
procedures for collecting and analysing the needed information in a
research study.
• Research design can be defined as a blue print to conduct a research
study, which involves the description of research approach, study
setting, sampling size, sampling technique, tools and method of data
collection and analysis to answer specific research questions or for
testing research hypotheses.
6. Nature of the
research problem
Purpose of the
study
Researcher’s
knowledge and
experience
Researcher’s interest
and motivation
Research ethics and
principles
Subjects/participants
Resources
Time
Possible control on
extraneous
variables
Users of the study
findings
Factors Affecting
Selection of
Research Design
8. Internal Validity
In the internal validity, the independent variable is responsible
for variation in dependent variable. Internal validity demands a
tighter control over study to Maximize the effectiveness of the
results.
10. External Validity
It refers to the extent to which the results can be generalized
to a large population. External validity researches under what
conditions and in which type of subjects. The same results
can be expected to be replicated, or whether the same
intervention will work in another setting and with different
subjects.
11. Factors that may
affect external
validity
Hawthorne
effect
Experimental
effect
Reactive effect
of pretest
Novelty effect
People
Place
Time
13. Quantitative Research Design
Experimental
research
True
experimental
design
Post-test-only
control
design
Pretest-post-
test control
group desgin
Solomon
four-group
design
Factorial
design
Randomized
block design
Crossover
design
Latin square
design
Quasi-
experimental
design
Nonrandomized
control group
design
Time-series
design
Pre-
experimental
design
One-shot
case design
One-group
pretest-post-
test design
Nonexperimental
research designs
Descriptive
design
Univariant
descriptive
design
Exploratory
descriptive
design
Comparative
descriptive
design
Correlational/Ex
post facto design
Prospective
design
Retrospective
design
Developmental
research design
Cross-
sectional
design
Longitudinal
design
Epidemiological
designs
case-control
studies
Cohort
studies
Survey
research
design
Other additional
research designs
Methodological
studies
Meta-analysis
Secondary
data analysis
Outcome
research
Evaluation
studies
Operational
research
14. Quantitative research collects
information from existing and
potential customers using sampling
methods and sending out online
surveys, online polls, questionnaires,
etc., the results of which can be
depicted in the form of numerical.
After careful understanding of these
numbers to predict the future of a
product or service and make changes
accordingly.
16. EXPERIMENTAL RESEARCH DESIGNS
Experimental research designs are concerned with examination of the effect of
independent variable on the dependent variable, where the independent variable is
manipulated through treatment or intervention(s), and the effect of these
interventions is observed on the dependent variable. The application of control is
difficult when studies are conducted in natural settings on human subjects,
Therefore, in nursing, experimental research design is not feasible to use.
17. 1)True Experimental Designs - complete control over the extraneous
variables and can predict confidently that the observe effect on the
dependable variable is only due to the manipulation of the independent
variable.
Essential Characteristics:-
a)Manipulation
b)Control -Negative control
-Positive control
-Clear control
18. Some of these measures can, however, control extraneous variables, which
include:
Matching
Counterbalancing
Homogeneity by statistical test
c) Randomization
Methods of randomization –
Random assignment of subjects
Another possible method
Thirdly, a random table may be used to facilitate the randomization process
Computer-assisted randomization
19. Types of True Experimental Designs
1)POST-TEST ONLY CONTROL DESIGN
Random
assignment
Exp. group Treatment Post-test
Control group post-test
20. 2)PRETEST-POST-TEST-ONLY DESIGN
Random
assignment
Exp. group pretest treatment post-test
Control
group
pretest post-test
3)SOLOMON FOUR-GROUP DESIGN
Random
assignment
Exp. group 1 Pretest Treatment Post-test
Control group 1 Pretest Post-test
Exp. group 2 Treatment Post-test
Control group 2 Post-test
21. 4)FACTORIAL DESIGN
Frequency of
mouth care
Protocols of the mouth care
Chlorhexidine(
α1)
Saline(α2)
4 hourly (β1) α1…β1 α2…β1
6 hourly (β2) α1…β2 α2…β2
8 hourly (β3) α1…β3 α2…β3
5)RANDOMIZED BLOCK DESIGN
Type of
antihypertensive
drugs
BLOCKS
Patients with
primary
hypertension (I)
Diabetic patients
with hypertension
(II)
Renal patients with
hypertension (III)
A A,I A,II A,III
B B,I B,II B,III
C C,I C,II C,III
22. 6)CROSSOVER DESIGN
Groups Protocols of the mouth care
Group I Chlorhexidine (α1) Saline (α2)
Group II Saline (α2) Chlorhexidine (α1)
7)LATIN SQUARE DESIGN
23. ADVANTAGES
Establish the causal relationship between independent and dependent
variables.
Where the variables are more easily controlled.
Can yield greater degree of purity in observation.
It can be created in an experimental setting.
We can often create conditions in a short period of time.
The researcher can pursue his or her studies in a more leisurely,
careful, and concentrated way.
24. DISADVANTAGES
The results of experimental research design cannot be replicated.
It is not possible to conduct experiments on human beings.
Valid measurable criteria nor instruments to measure them.
It is not possible to impose control over extraneous variables.
When the effect of independent variable may require a lengthy period of time
before.
It is very difficult to get cooperation from the study participants.
25. QUASI-EXPERIMENTAL RESEARCH DESIGN
Quasi-experimental research design involves the manipulation of
independent variable to the effect on dependent variable; but it lacks at
least one of the two characteristics of the true experimental design:
randomization or a control group.
26. Main Characteristics
Manipulation of the independent
Lack of at least one of the two other essential characteristics of the true
experiment, i.e. random assignment of subject or a control group.
Quasi-independent variables are used instead of true independent
variables.
27. Types of Quasi-experimental Designs:-
1)Nonrandomized control group design
Exp. group Prestest Treatment
Post-
test
Control
group
Pretest Post-test
29. Advantages
Quasi-experimental designs are more frequently used
This design is more suitable for real-world natural setting than true
experimental research designs.
It allows researchers to evaluate the impact in natural setting.
It may be able to establish causal relationship, wherein some of the
hypotheses are practically answered through this design only.
30. Disadvantages
There is no control over extraneous variables influencing the dependent
variables.
The absence of a control group or a lack of control over the research
setting makes the results of this design less reliable and weak for the
establishment of causal relationship between independent and
dependent variables.
32. Types of Pre-experimental Research Design
1)One-shot case design
Exp. group Treatment Post-test
2)One-group pretest-post-test design
Exp. group Prestest Treatment Post-test
33. Advantages
It is very simple and convenient to conduct these studies in natural
settings.
It is the most suitable design for the beginners in the field of
experimental research.
Disadvantages
It is considered a very weak experimental design to establish causal
relationship between independent and dependent variables because it
controls no threat to internal validity.
It has a very little control over the research.
34. NONEXPERIMENTAL
RESEARCH DESIGN
Nonexperimental research design is one
of the broad categories of research
designs in which the researcher observes
the phenomena as they occur naturally
and no external variables are introduced.
It is a research design in which neither
the variables are deliberately
manipulated nor is the setting controlled.
35. Need of Nonexperimental Design
The studies in which the independent variables cannot be
manipulated.
The studies in which it is unethical to manipulate the independent
variable, i.e. manipulation may cause physical or psychological
harm to subjects.
The studies or research situations where it is not practically possible
to conduct experiments.
Descriptive-type studies that do not require any experimental
approaches.
36. Types of Nonexperimental Research Designs :-
Descriptive design
o Univariant descriptive design
o Exploratory descriptive design
o Comparative descriptive design
Correlational/Ex-post facto design
o Prospective design
o Retrospective design
Developmental research design
o Cross-sectional design
o Longitudinal design
Epidemiological designs
o Case—control studies
o Cohort studies
Survey research design
37. 1)DESCRIPTIVE RESEARCH DESIGNS
The purpose of descriptive studies is to observe, describe, and document aspects of
a situation.
Main Features
used to observe, document, and describe a phenomenon occurring in its natural
setting.
to gain more information about characteristics within a particular field of inquiry.
provide an impression of a situation.
do not involve the manipulation of variables.
Descriptive design may be used to develop theories
bias is prevented through operational definitions of variables
The description of variables leads to an interpretation of the theoretical meaning
of the findings and the development of hypotheses.
38. Types of Descriptive Research Design
b)Exploratory
Design
Exploratory
design is used to
identify, explore,
and describe the
existing
phenomenon
and its related
factor
c) Comparative Design
This design is used to
compare two distinct
groups on the basis of
selected attributes
a)Univariant
Descriptive
Design
are undertaken
to describe the
frequency of
occurrence of a
phenomenon.
39. 2)CORRELATIONAL/EX-POST FACTO RESEARCH DESIGN
This is a nonexperimental design where researcher examines the relationship
between two or, more variables in a natural setting without manipulation or control.
Main Features
the researchers examine the strength of relationships between variables
the effect of independent variable is observed on dependent variable
in most correlational studies, the independent variable is identified, which,
without any intervention, influences the dependent variable.
Magnitude and direction of relationship of independent and dependent variables
is measured by using the correlation coefficient statistical measure, where results
range between —1 and +1.
40. Types of Correlational Research Design
Prospective
Research
Design
Design in which
the researcher
relates the
present to the
future is a
prospective
research design
Retrospective Research
Design
A design in which the
researcher studies the
current phenomenon by
seeking information from
past is a retrospective
research design.
Ambispective
research
design
The
ambispective
study design
moves both
forward and
backward in
time.
41. 3)DEVELOPMENTAL RESEARCH DESIGN
Developmental research design examines the phenomenon with
reference to time. Developmental research designs are generally used
as adjunct research designs with other research designs, such as cross-
sectional-descriptive, longitudinal-correlational research designs.
42. Types of Developmental Research Design :-
a)Cross-Sectional Research
Design
Cross-sectional research
design is the one in which
researcher collects data at
particular point of time
(one period of data
collection).
b) Longitudinal Research
Design
Longitudinal research
design is used to collect
data over an extended
time period (long-time
study).
44. 4)EPIDEMIOLOGICAL RESEARCH DESIGNS
Epidemiology is the study to investigate the distribution and causes of the diseases
in population. Therefore, epidemiological studies are generally conducted to
investigate causes of different diseases in either prospective approaches (cause to
effect) or retrospective approaches (effect to cause).
45. Types of epidemiological research design
Epidemiological
research design
Cohort study
design
Case-Control
studies
46. a) Cohort Study Designs - The some of the specific characteristics of cohort study design
are:
Cohort studies, also incidence studies, are designed to measure the exposure and outcome in
the context of time.
In this study design, individual subjects are followed over time to measure
The strength of this design is the ability to demonstrate the temporal order of the exposure and
outcome—a necessary criterion to determine causality.
while case-control studies are limited to odd ratios for measuring association between
exposures and outcomes.
be prospective, retrospective, or ambispective.
Disadvantage
Cohort studies is that they tend to be very expensive and time consuming.
The study is substantively weakened with high attrition of subjects between measurement
points, considerable resources and staff time are typically needed to maximize retention rates
and subsequently the validity of the study sample.
The design is also inefficient for rare outcome and for those with a very long latency period
47. Case-Control Studies -The some of the specific characteristics of case-control study design
are:
This study design uses true exposure and outcome measures that are anchored in measured
time.
A unique feature of this design is that individual with the outcome of interest (case) are
compared to individuals who do not have the outcome.
The unit of analysis in case-control studies is the individual; and in this design only one
measure of association between exposure and outcome is appropriate, i.e. odd ratio.
Case-control studies are especially valuable for studying rare or emerging diseases.
This type of design begins with selecting the cases after operationally defining the cases.
In this study design, cases and controls are identified from either clinical or general population
sources,
The cases may also be chosen from community setting through disease registry other previous
cross-sectional surveys.
It must be ensured that whenever possible and practical, controls should be similar to cases in
important outcome-relevant characteristics, such as age, gender, occupation, medical history,
residence, and so on.
48. The potential weakness of case-control studies are:-
Inability to calculate incidence or prevalence of the outcome.
Incidence is impossible to measure because the study travels back in
time; so cases cannot be measured as they emerge.
49. 5)SURVEY RESEARCH DESIGN
A survey is a research design used to collect information from different
subjects within a given population having, same characteristics of
interest. If a survey is conducted on a sample of population, it is called
sample survey; and if the entire population is involved, it is called a
population survey, such as census, etc.
50. Main Features
Survey research is the process of gathering current required data from the
subjects.
Information is collected from a mix of subjects who represent the total
population.
Survey research is a mode of enquiry that relies heavily upon the validity of
verbal reports
Survey data can be collected in number of ways-The most common method is
questioning.
Personal interview are regarded as the most useful method of collecting survey
data
51. Survey
Depending on the
nature of
phenomenon under
study
Descriptive
survey
Exploratory
survey
Comparative
survey
Correlational
survey
Based on
methods of data
collection
Written
survey
Oral survey
Electronic
survey
52. ADVANTAGES OF NONEXPERIMENTAL RESEARCH
DESIGN
Nonexperimental research designs tend to be closest to real-life situations.
Nonexperimental research designs are most suitable for the nursing research studies.
Numerous human characteristics are inherently not subject to experimental manipulation
therefore, the effects of these characteristics on other phenomena cannot be studied
experimentally.
there are many variables that could technically be manipulated, but manipulation is
forbidden on ethical grounds.
Constraints might involve insufficient time, lack of administrative approval, shortages of
funds, excessively inconvenient, etc. In such cases, nonexperimental researches are most
suitable.
53. Disadvantages
The major disadvantage of nonexperimental researches is that the results
obtained and the relationship between the dependent and independent variable
can never be absolutely clear and error-free.
Nonexperimental studies are conducted for comparative purposes using
nonrandomly selected groups, which may not be homogeneous and tend to be
dissimilar in different traits or characteristics that may affect the authenticity
and generalizability of the study results
55. a)Methodological Studies
The main problem in nursing research is to find appropriate measurement tools or
techniques to measure nursing-related phenomenon. Nurses frequently use tools
developed by other disciplines, such as psychology, such as psychology, sociology
etc. Basically, a methodological research includes the following steps
Defining the behaviour or construct to measure,
Formulating the items for tool
Developing instruments for users and respondents
Testing the reliability and validity of research tool
56. b)Meta-analysis
Quantitatively combining and integrating the findings of the multiple research
studies on a particular topic is known is known as meta-analysis.
Steps in Conducting a Meta-Analysis :-
Locate the studies
Define hypothesis
Input data
Calculate effect sizes
Analyse variable
57. c)Secondary Data Analysis
Secondary data analysis is a research design in which the data collection by one researcher is
reanalysed by another research, usually to test new hypotheses
d)Outcome Research
Outcome research involves the evaluation of care practices and systems in place. It is used in
nursing to develop evidence-based practice and to improve nursing services. It is a research that is
planned to assess or record. The end result of health care services.
Structures
(Having the
right things)
Processes
(Doing the right
things)
Outcome
(having the right
results)
58. e)Evaluation Studies
Evaluation research studies are an applied form of research design, which involve the judgement
about how well a specific programme, practice, procedure, or policy is working Evaluation studies
may also be used to determine the effectiveness or value of processes, personnel, equipment, and
the material used in a particular setting.
Evaluation research could be either formative evaluation or summative evaluation
research.
o Formative evaluation
o Summative evaluation
59. f)Operational Research
Operational research involves the study of complex human organizations and
services to develop new knowledge-about institutions, programmes, use of
facilities, and personnel in order to improve working efficiency of an organization.
The main objectives of operational research are to develop new
