Barriers to the diffusion of the VSM (Nuno Rosa, 2016)

UCL Centre for Systems Engineering
Department of Space and Climate Physics
Technology Management Research Project (60 credits)
Submitted in partial fulfilment of MSc in Technology Management
On: 24/08/16
Module SPCEGT99
Technology Management Research Project
Supervisor Dr Raúl Leal
Title : Barriers to the diffusion of the Viable System Model
Nuno ROSA

ABSTRACT
The Viable System Model (VSM) is a tool for the diagnosis and design of organisations. Despite having
been developed in the 60s, this framework has not become widely known. This dissertation aims to
confirm how widespread the knowledge and use of the VSM is and to investigate the barriers to the
diffusion of this framework. Previous studies have mentioned some of the obstacles that prevent the
VSM to become widely known. However, there has not been an investigation particularly focused on
the issues behind the obstacles to the dissemination of the VSM and analysing them in light of a theory
of diffusion. As such, this Dissertation further advances the understanding of the aforementioned issues,
investigating the potential obstacles to diffusion and bringing them together as a whole in a
comprehensive analysis in the context of Everett Rogers’ diffusion of innovation theory. Interviews
were conducted in order to explore the aforementioned question and to acquire real-world perspectives
that are not usually found in academic papers regarding the awareness and use of the VSM. The findings
from the research confirmed that a number of attributes either slow down the diffusion of the VSM or
inhibit completely — these include issues related to application, methodology and politics; different
thinking approaches; and learning obstacles. The results are discussed in light of Rogers’ theory by
analysing the aforementioned barriers and interpreting them in terms of the characteristics that affect
the rate of diffusion of innovations. Furthermore, the behaviour of the social system and the
communication channels that influence the VSM are also examined. As a result of the above, it was
found the VSM is characterised by some advantages, such as its intrinsic benefits in terms of
organisational diagnostic and design, as well as presenting some immediacy of results shortly after
understanding its basic concepts. However, it is also characterised by: its riskiness of purchase;
challenges in terms of observability of results; and extent of the behavioural change it requires. This
Dissertation concludes that the VSM is still characterised by a majority of factors that slow down its
diffusion or that act as barriers regarding its dissemination towards a widespread audience.

TABLE OF CONTENTS
1 INTRODUCTION.......................................................................................................................... 1
2 LITERATURE REVIEW............................................................................................................... 4
3 METHODOLOGY AND METHODS......................................................................................... 11
4 RESULTS .................................................................................................................................... 14
5 DISCUSSION .............................................................................................................................. 26
6 CONCLUSIONS.......................................................................................................................... 35
7 BIBLIOGRAPHY........................................................................................................................ 37

UCL MSc Technology Management Rosa, 2016
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1 INTRODUCTION
1.1 Introduction
A growing number of companies are being forced to reformulate their business, whether due an
increasingly competitive economic environment or because of new operational requirements that
demand technological updates. This business reformulation, often takes the form of a business
transformation — a fundamental change, normally related to business strategy, design of a new business
model or organisational structure (Ashkenas, 2015).
However, research show that a large percentage of business transformation projects fail (70%), and that
the rate of success is relatively low (10%) when the organisation did not have a holistic program
(McKinsey & Company, 2013). As such, it could be expected that those systemic tools that provide
better chances of success would come to the forefront of management and organisational design. The
Viable System Model (VSM) could be one of those tools.
The VSM was created in the 60s as a model for the organisational structure that a company should
possess in order to remain viable (Beer, 1981), i.e., in order to survive a changing environment. Given
the systemic nature of the VSM, as well as its function as a tool for organisational design and diagnosis,
examining the value of such a model seems extremely relevant and timely.
As such, this dissertation focuses on understanding how widespread the awareness and application of
the Viable System Model (VSM) among the participants of the social system that might derive the most
benefits from it — namely, those that work with organisational design and business transformation.
Since this research project concerns the diffusion of the VSM and not an analysis of the framework
itself, the VSM model (Figure 1, below) and its functioning will not be explored in this Dissertation.
For a brief overview of the VSM, refer to Appendix 1 of this Dissertation; for a detailed description and
discussion of the VSM, refer to the Bibliography section.

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Figure 1. Diagram of Stafford Beer’s Viable System Model (Beer, 1979)
1.2 Research question
While appearing to display a solid theoretical framework, and despite having been developed in the 60s,
the VSM does not seem to be widely known among the communities that research and practice within
the aforementioned fields. As such, this Dissertation aims to ascertain how widespread the knowledge
and use of the framework actually is in light of Rogers’ diffusion of innovation theory.
Given the reported efficiency and value of the VSM, one might assume that this model would have
disseminated and reached a mainstream audience outside of organisational management and design
niches. However, given the seemingly limited awareness and use of the VSM, this dissertation attempts
to understand the reasons that might explain that situation, that is the barriers that prevent its diffusion
towards a widespread audience.
1.3 Conclusion
To understand the reasons that could be behind the afore-mentioned question, this Dissertation includes
the following sections: a Literature Review where the main challenges and barriers towards the diffusion
of the VSM are presented; a Methodology section that explains how the empirical data of this research

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was collected; the Results, in which the empirical evidence obtained through interviews is presented;
and a Discussion section, where the data found throughout the research process are discussed and
conclusions are drawn from the findings.

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2 LITERATURE REVIEW
2.1 Introduction
Jones and Cockton (2003) consider that, despite being well-known and applied by members of certain
circles, managers in general would benefit greatly from the knowledge and application of the VSM —
and, as such, argue that this model should be known by a more widespread audience.
To provide a platform of analysis, this dissertation presents a literature review that starts by delving into
the perceived benefits of the VSM, followed by considerations that address its validity as a useful
framework to perform organisational diagnosis and design, as well as to conduct business
transformation.
Subsequently, this section focuses on the reasons that might explain why the awareness of the VSM is
not more widespread and the framework used among the academia, the practitioner communities (be it
internal or external consultants within the organisations), or the beneficiaries of their services (namely,
managers within the organisations). These include issues related to application of the framework;
different thinking approaches (linear vs systemic thinking); and learning obstacles.
2.2 Benefits
The first consideration worthy of attention regarding the VSM’s power as a tool is probably its capability
to be applied to very different contexts. This is illustrated by Azadeh et al. (2011), who list a number of
various applications of VSM, including areas as diversified as: environment management; social,
behavioural and organisational management; information and knowledge management; process
management; and others.
After taking the above into account, the primary distinction that must be made regarding the VSM
concerns its systemic approach to the organisation in comparison to traditional management
frameworks. As such, one of its main strengths lies in its holistic approach, according to which it may
even “accept sub-optimal performance of some of the parts to achieve a defined overall objective”
(Beckford, 1993, p. 39).
Regarding its application, the VSM has been praised for enabling a fast and thorough diagnosis
(Hoverstadt, 2008), allowing to reveal and pinpoint the existing organisational issues and, therefore, to
provide recommendations to address them — as a result of the descriptive capabilities of the VSM
regarding how a viable system should be designed (Leonard, 2009).

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In addition, the VSM puts into evidence a range of communication channels that should be present to
transfer information among the different systems, and provides a neutral terminology focussed on
allowing diagnostic and problem-solving analysis instead of assigning blame. The purposeful inclusion
of a balancing mechanism between future prospects and the present circumstances of the organisation
allows to conduct planning within the organisation in a sustainable manner (Leonard, 1992).
Contrary to the criticism that interprets the VSM as a mechanistic model, through the distribution of
responsibility, this framework encourages managers to become active participants instead of passive
order-fulfilling employees (Holmberg,1989). This same feature is highlighted by Umpleby (2006), who
notes that this approach is in line with the level of education and capability of today’s workers. Notably,
Espejo and Gill (1997) argue already in 1997 how the new type of organisations characterized by flatter
structures could benefit from a model that focuses on effective communication instead of on the
reporting lines within functions.
However, despite all the vast range of applications, the identified benefits, and the particular relevance
for present-day organisations and workers, the VSM is not a widely known model. The reasons behind
this occurrence are what this project aims at investigating.
2.3 Validity
Perhaps one the earliest criticisms to the VSM, noted by Walker (2006) and Burgess and Wake (2012),
was the lack of exemplar situations where the model could clearly prove itself as a useful framework
for organisational design and transformation. This translated into a concern about the legitimacy of the
VSM as a practical and efficient tool.
However, in many academic papers, the validity of the VSM has been evidenced throughout the years
in a variety of circumstances and regarding organisations of different nature and size. In his article,
Schwaninger (2006) presents a substantial collection of applications of the VSM, which include business
transformation; improving an organisation’s cohesion; and the development and consolidation of
strategy and mission of organisations.
For instance, the application to small and medium enterprises are covered by Burgess and Wake (2012),
Beckford reports on larger companies (1993) and organisations facing a crisis situation (Beckford,
1992), and Walker (1998) reports an intervention in a wholefood cooperative. In addition, Malik, a

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holistic management consulting, has an approach firmly based on management cybernetics including
VSM within its tools of choice (Malik-management.com, 2016).
These considerations regarding the demonstrated validity of the VSM add to the above-mentioned about
reflection about the benefits: if this framework not only presents a number of advantages, but these have
been confirmed along the years through research and testing, it seems pertinent to understand why this
knowledge has not been more broadly spread. This dissertation presents below those reasons that,
through the literature research, were deemed most pertinent to understand this occurrence.
2.4 Application issues
The main difficulties regarding the application of VSM seem to derive, in general, from a combination
of factors. After critical analysis of the main criticisms to the model — which might result in practical
challenges to its application — Beckford (1993) suggests that the main challenges are of linguistic
(including both terminology and figurative language), methodological and political nature. Below, the
dissertation looks into the main reasons behind the issues they might present.
2.4.1 Linguistic
Jones and Cockton (2003) argue that the way that the VSM is expressed can be a source of difficulties.
On one hand, the terminology originally used by Beer might prove difficult to understand, since terms
such as “anti-oscillation, amplifier, attenuator, transducer and homeostasis only have initial explanatory
power for individuals who have come across them while studying physics or biology” (Jones and
Cockton, 2003, p. 2).
On the other hand, even if the terminology is adapted into a more familiar language, issues can arise
from confusion with current vocabulary that has different meanings according to the context. For
instance, in the computer software created by the above-mentioned authors to assist in the learning of
the VSM, they decided to use the term “support” to refer to System 2. This was confusing for a person
in charge of “supporting academic faculties with business development” (Jones and Cockton, 2003, p.
10) who was trying to fit his role under System 2 when, in reality, his role consisted in research and
future oriented types of activities — clearly belonging to System 4.
Besides the textual expression, the VSM is rich in figurative language, through the model itself and
representations of other concepts essential to the framework. Jones and Cockton (2003) argue that the
model sometimes looks “like an electronic circuit diagram, and is not in any way similar to the types of
models that managers are used to see in management books (Jones and Cockton, 2003, p. 2). In addition,

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the same authors mention the difficulties presented by a visual representation of what is an essentially
dynamic system.
Another challenge consists in the graphical representation of the model leading to its understanding as
a hierarchical structure in which System 5 would be superior to the systems below it (Beckford, 1992).
This author goes on to suggest that the model could be represented sideways order to eliminate that
impression of hierarchy that seems to be sometimes perceived.
All the above-mentioned mentioned linguistic confer complexity to the VSM, the impact of which will
be further explored in the Discussion section of this dissertation.
2.4.2 Methodological
Even when the VSM is clearly understood and mastered, there is yet another challenge concerning skills
and methodology that are required in order to use the model successfully. To understand an organisation
and to obtain information that allow to build the model, a practitioner might need to use qualitative
research methods (Hildbrand and Bodhanya, 2015), such as conducting interviews, working with focus
groups, facilitating workshops or performing shadowing.
Several researchers mention the usefulness of the VSM in showing “what” to focus on and what might
need to be addressed, but criticise how unhelpful it is in informing about “how” to undertake the analysis
or diagnosis (Hildbrand and Bodhanya, 2015). While being in line with these considerations, Beckford
(1993) highlights that this situation should be seen as more of a methodological constraint than a
shortcoming of the model itself.
Dickover (1994), referring to the systems science in general, considers that the field would benefit highly
if the skills and knowledge required for the understanding and application of the frameworks were made
explicit. In addition, the same author argues that literature providing help in this context is basically
non-existent and that no assistance is given in determining who to interview and what to inquire about,
or what interactions should be given due attention for the purpose of subsequent translation into the
development of a VSM (Dickover, 1994).
The lack of methodological literature to assist in the use of the VSM means that its application is not
immediately accessible to non-initiated practitioners, conferring another layer of complexity to the
frameworks.

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2.4.3 Political
An issue that seems recurrent when considering the application of the VSM is that of the specific
distribution of responsibility that it requires and, inherently, of power. This situation may come as a
threat to the status quo and the established powers, as pointed out by Beckford (1993). In addition, there
is always the fundamental challenge of obtaining a buy-in from stakeholders. This not only means that
the client must have enough power to implement the changes, but the necessary leverage over other
indirect stakeholders who are part of the systems (Syncho.com, 2009).
In addition to the issue of power, it is also important to note that bringing about change is more than
devising the right communication structures and acknowledging the system dynamics that should be in
place. In effect, a major challenge is posed by the fact that these conditions that bring about a viable
system will only prevail if relationships are successfully created between the members of the
organisation (Espejo and Reyes, 2011).
As will be analysed below, these challenges that result from politics and change management present as
situations that might require some considerable behavioural change — an important factor when
considering the diffusion of an idea, or framework, in this case.
2.5 Different thinking approaches (linear vs systemic thinking)
In addition, the influence of the industrial age with its rigid hierarchy and “command and control
philosophy” (Leonard, 1992, p. 47) was noted back in 1992, and still seems largely prevalent in today’s
organisations. In this sense, it is generally argued, for example by Walker (1998), that most
organisational theories are characterised by linear type of thinking, disregarding whole-systems
considerations and failing to accept the inherent complexity of organisations.
2.6 Learning obstacles
2.6.1 Lack of resources/appropriate strategy for beginners
It has been argued that some of the main publications that present the VSM require a significant
commitment to understand the underlying principles of the framework (Burgess and Wake, 2012).
Espejo and Gill (1997) state that the concepts that constitute the VSM are not intuitive and immediately
easy to understand.

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Besides the level of investment in terms of study, the lack of appropriate resources for beginners to
delve into the VSM could also be one of the reasons behind why the VSM is not generally found in
management textbooks or as part of an educational or training programme (Jones and Cockton, 2003).
In the academic environment, the widespread knowledge of the model might have been inhibited by the
fact that the lack of practical experience in using the model prevents the acquisition of an in-depth
understanding of the VSM (Beckford, 1993). On the one hand, this could lead to management students
not being generally introduced to the model since the due to lecturers not fully mastering the framework.
On the other hand, when taught, Brocklesby and Cummings (1995) consider that there might be a
tendency for the academics to initiate the learning process with too much an emphasis on the theoretical
aspects of the VSM, causing people to switch off — which only makes it a more daunting perspective
when the learner is inserted in a challenging professional context while trying to understand the model.
2.6.2 Lack of practitioner resources
Dickover (1994) considers that Beer’s “Diagnosing the System for Organisations” is directed towards
managers who are already knowledgeable regarding the VSM, and for situations in which a certain
perspective regarding the system has already been determined. As such, no advice is given regarding
how to conduct data collection in the investigation — namely, how to identify the stakeholders that
might provide crucial information or what to ask them.
The same author notes that there have been contributions such as Flood and Jackson’s “Total Systems
Intervention” aimed at recognising which systems model would be more adequate according to the
circumstances — however, it does not aid in terms of defining which specific methods would be more
appropriate for data collection, for instance (Dickover, 1994).
Brocklesby and Cummings (1996) point to a lack of publications directed to the practitioner community
as a reason for the lack of widespread knowledge of the VSM. Hildbrand and Bodhanya (2015) argue
that there is a gap in the literature explaining how to conduct a diagnosis, specifically detailing what
research methods would be more adequate.
The above-mentioned lack of resources directed at beginners and practitioners contribute to make the
VSM a framework that is complicated to learn and put to use. In addition, the conducted research
revealed that the development of knowledge is to a large extent circumscribed to the academia,
indicating a further barrier to the dissemination of the VSM towards other communities.

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2.7 Conclusion
Through the literature research, the VSM has been found to be a solid and versatile framework that
provides a number of benefits in its application. Additionally, its validity has been tested and confirmed
through numerous research projects throughout the years, even though these were mainly conducted in
the context of the academia. However, awareness about the VSM has not disseminated towards a larger
audience.
By demanding a systemic thinking approach, the VSM presents and demands a “new framework of
thought about the nature and purpose of organisations and of the individuals who comprise them”
(Beckford, 1993, p. 61). One the one hand, it expects organisations to be seen as systemic entities,
naturally complex and interconnected, having no hierarchy but rather interdependent functions. On the
other hand, people are to be considered empowered individuals that must be trusted in their roles and in
terms of the responsibility they are given. However, these expectations can prove difficult to accept and
to implement.
Additionally, there are a number of issues related to related to application of the framework: the VSM
model and cybernetics terminology are unknown to most people, which can lead to feelings of exclusion
or inferiority and result in rejection by the stakeholders; to date, there is no clear methodology developed
to aid in interventions using the framework; and there may be difficulties related to politics within the
intervened organisations since the VSM identifies shortcomings or dysfunctions at the metasystem
(which includes people that are generally responsible for bringing about transformation and change) —
if they feel threated, these people might not cooperate, ignore the recommendations or even work against
the intervention process.
Finally, there are a various learning obstacles, namely related to the lack of availability of resources
both for beginners and for practitioners (a circumstance only made more relevant taking into account
the afore-mentioned description of the model as complex and not easily accessible to the non-initiated).
This Literature Review formed the foundation for the empirical investigation that is presented in the
following sections. On one hand, it was essential to confirm the soundness of the premise of the
dissertation research — that the VSM is a powerful and valid framework for business transformation.
On the other, it helped in delineating the boundary of the investigation by identifying what themes were
worthy of being pursued, and that might possibly help in explaining the reasons behind why the
awareness and practice of the VSM is not more widespread.

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3 METHODOLOGY AND METHODS
3.1 Introduction
The selected data collection method to support the research was interviewing. The Literature Review
helped in ascertaining which topics seemed more pertinent to investigate, and the interviews sought to
gather possible explanations and solutions regarding the research questions.
3.2 The opportunity sample
Data was collected by carrying out 11 convenience-sampled interviews with professionals experienced
in the use of the VSM. The researcher purposefully decided to include a range of participants whose
background varied from a close connection to the academia to practitioners whose main association to
the VSM is through practical application, namely in a consultancy context. Through this selection
criteria, the researcher aimed at collecting data that would be representative of the social system under
analysis. By including individuals from the academia and practitioner communities, one group was left
out — the beneficiaries of the services (e.g. managers within organisations). However, given the insider
knowledge acquired by the practitioners regarding that group, it was deemed that a deep understanding
of the challenges faced by those individuals regarding the VSM would be sufficiently explored.
3.3 Data collection
The research was conducted over the period of two weeks in August 2016. The interviews, lasting an
average of 50 minutes, were recorded with the consent of the participants, and the interviewees were
assured that they would remain anonymous. This was particularly important since, besides being
considered good practice (Robson, 2011), the researcher wanted to ensure that relevant information
would be provided about the real practices in the industry and the academia, as well as the reasons that
might explain them.
The format of the interview was semi-structured, following a set of pre-defined topics (Robson, 2011).
The topics were approached mostly by posing questions, although the interviewees were allowed to
diverge, to a certain extent, through thinking by association. The researcher decided to choose
interviewing, as well as this particular format, since this data collection method allowed to investigate
the research questions while at the same time being flexible enough to enable new facts, theories and
other relevant information to emerge. An effort was made to, as much as possible, avoid a lack of
standardisation through the utilisation of the mentioned pre-defined topics and key questions (Robson,
2011) and biases were, as much as possible, prevented by avoiding leading questions.

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3.4 Data analysis strategies
The analysis of the data collected through the interviewing process was performed through thematic
coding (Robson, 2011). The bibliographical research conducted to develop the Literature Review was
fundamental for the generation of initial codes, which included specific acts or behaviours; activities;
strategies, practices and tactics; and meanings (Robson, 2011).
Through thematic coding, the researcher was able to analyse the codes that were identified through the
interviewing process — both pertaining to expected topics originating from the initial codes, but also
new ones created from the information provided by the interviewees — and to collate them into themes.
The researcher was particularly focused on the identification of repetitions, similarities and differences
among the information provided, as well as material related to the previously devised conceptual
framework (Ryan and Bernard, 2003).
Despite the existence of various other approaches to the analysis of qualitative data, thematic coding
presented itself as the most suitable. This was the case especially due to the possibility of clearly
identifying certain themes and key questions that had arisen as a result of the bibliographic research
process and matching them with the data that emerged from the interviews.
3.5 Data collection limitations
The main limitations regarding the collection of empirical data was related to the quality and quantity
of the opportunity sample.
Regarding the quality of the opportunity sample, it could be argued that, since the interviewees were
selected for their experience in the use of the VSM, they might represent a biased group with a personal
preference for this particular framework. However, it was considered that this possibility would not
affect the research, since the research questions of this dissertation project are particularly concerned
with diffusion issues. These topics were approached with as much objectivity as possible, by posing
questions that tried to determine specific activities, behaviours and reactions regarding the perceived
barriers to diffusion, as well as numerical estimates regarding how widespread the interviewees
considered the awareness of the VSM to be.
In terms of quantity, due to the chosen format of interviewing, only a relatively small number of
interviews could be conducted, and a small sample is generally unlikely to be representative of a

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particular population. For this reason, despite the size limitation, the opportunity sample was gathered
in a way to include: individuals from various professional fields; with different levels of experience; and
with distinct familiarity levels regarding the VSM, as well as its history and development. This approach
was considered to have provided a rich picture of the general population.

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4 RESULTS
4.1 Introduction
The interviews provided a number of insights about the perspectives that the communities that know
and apply the VSM have regarding the usefulness of the framework, as well as the perceived barriers to
its diffusion. The diverse background and experience of the participants allowed to acquire a varied pool
of insights, especially since the participants ranged from those with closer ties to the academic world to
those with, fundamentally, a practitioner type of experience.
The collected data is presented below. Since the results mirrored, to a certain extent, the findings of the
Literature Review, this section is purposefully structured in a similar way. However, after covering the
topics comprised in the Literature Review, this section covers additional themes that make the most of
the chosen research method. The interviewing process allowed to explore real-world issues related to
how the VSM fits within the academic world, the consultancy industry, and society in this day and age
(socio-economic environment, technology and education considerations).
4.2 Benefits
The whole group of interviewees was unanimous regarding the validity of the VSM. The specific
applications would vary according to the profession or field of the interviewee, but all of them were
aligned in terms of the effectiveness and the benefits they are able to draw from it. However, they also
recognised that it could be challenging to convey those benefits to other people:
If you actually want to address more people, you have got to show how relevant it is to them, so
developing case studies, developing approaches for specific groups of people and answering their
problems (…), "so what" — if it doesn’t solve people's problems, most managers aren't interested.
(Interviewee 6)
4.3 Validity
In line with the above-mentioned difficulty regarding the benefits, presenting the VSM as a valid and
proven framework was described as troublesome. The main reasons behind it seem to be the lack of
representative evidence from outside the academic world:
And cases — just real-world examples written up, so people can go “Oh, yeah, that worked in
my sector, with my problem” because most people without that (…) evidence won't touch

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anything new, it's too risky (…). There's not enough case material, there's not good enough
evidence that it works (…). There's academic, but the practitioner stuff isn't strong enough.
(Interviewee 9)
And, in the same sense:
It would be nice to get a major application where we can say (…) took a really big company
and we changed it [through an intervention using the VSM]. (Interviewee 8)
4.4 Application issues
4.4.1 Linguistic
Terminology
All the interviewees mentioned how language could be an issue, especially referring to the language
that Stafford Beer used in the original publications. Some interviewees pointed out that, regardless the
perceived complexity of the VSM, the manner in which it was presented could be more daunting then
the framework itself:
I think Stafford Beer, he wrote it really complicated — he wasn't talking to the common man,
he was talking to highly academic people. That's a problem if you want to understand something
if the language and the concept of it gets more confusing that the actual method. (Interviewee
11)
As a result, the vast majority revealed that they would bridge that gap by adapting the terminology and
the explanation of the basic concepts of the model, on a case-by-case basis:
I will ask them to provide their own interpretation (…) — put your own names. (…) For instance,
in one case, they explained the VSM as someone riding a bicycle. (Interviewee 2)
Graphical representation
Besides the language used in the context of the VSM, the graphical representation was also mentioned
as one of the main challenges regarding the model:

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One of the problems of the VSM, particularly in the standard model, is that it comes in as being
too abstract. (Interviewee 1)
Often the representations used were taken from the original drawing, which the interviewees considered
dated and unappealing:
The diagram of the VSM, people look at it and go "I don't want to look at that", if there was as
more user-friendly kind of diagram, (…) I think that might help it be more accepted.
(Interviewee 7)
In addition, a few of the interviewees referred specifically to the issue of a perceived hierarchical
relationship among systems of the model. However, they added that this misunderstanding was,
generally, easy to overcome:
There is a topology to it, and System 5 looks like it's on top of System 1. And lots of people have
tried circular models and changing it from vertical to horizontal (…) but in the end I'm happy
to say that you only have to spend a couple of minutes thinking about the brain's control of the
heart, and you don't have a command and control relationship with your heart — you can’t say,
okay, I'm going to pump it 60 beats a minute and now I'll do 90, it doesn't work like that. (…)
you can get all these ideas over quite easily. (Interviewee 8)
Finally, a couple of the interviewees referred to the recursive nature of the model as an issue, as well as
its dynamic nature and implicit functioning:
The recursive structure is very difficult for lots of people (…) from a modelling point of view it
requires you to be able to think three-dimensionally and most people cannot think three
dimensionally. (…) The whole issue around complexity and variety in the model is hidden, and
the tooling around that is awful (…) (Interviewee 9)
4.4.2 Methodological
When asked about how they chose their practices to obtain the information and insights they needed to
apply the VSM, all the interviewees mentioned specific techniques. However, there was either no
mention of a specific existing methodology or it was explained as resulting from acquired personal
experience.

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After explaining how he had devised a mapping of the tools he could use as the situation required, one
of the interviewees remarked:
But, unfortunately, a lot of it is judgement and experience and that takes a long time to build.
(Interviewee 1)
A few of the interviewees pointed out that this was one of the reasons behind the difficulty in the learning
process and subsequent application of the model:
One is methodology, so techniques for doing X, you know? (…) So you have to do "method"
before lots of people can use it. (…) Most people don't learn concepts — they learn by following
a method, and if they haven't got a method they can't learn it. (Interviewee 9)
According to some of the participants, the explanations behind the insufficient practical knowledge
available in terms of methodology was the result of this knowhow not being imparted in courses that
teach the VSM, and from the lack of sharing within the VSM community, as will be further explored
below:
I think that's what all the courses miss, I think it's a massive, massive gap — the "how to". (…)
and people are reluctant to share that because there's so few people who actually do well and
use it. A lot of people like it, and a lot of people talk about it, but not a lot of people go out and
actually use it. (Interviewee 7)
And:
Having more user-experience approach when you do conferences, thinking more about not just
doing a conference to talk about a case, but doing more "we use this method to achieve it".
(Interviewee 11)
4.4.3 Political
The majority of the interviewees mentioned the particular challenge that the application of the VSM
could face when dealing with issues of power within organisations:

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People want to hold on to their power — and the VSM is a challenge to their power (…) and I
think that's half the reason why they don't want things exposed because, the minute that they do,
they start to lose their power. (Interviewee 7)
The diagnostic nature of the VSM and its capacity to reveal lack of communication, imbalances and
mismanagement was identified by the interviewees as a perceived threat to power and the status quo:
(…) [the VSM] it will expose things that nobody in an organisation wants exposed, so (…)
people are a little bit frightened of it — I think that the word "fear” is something that comes up
in my mind over and over again as a barrier. (Interviewee 7)
And one of the interviewees put it best using an idiom:
There's a famous English expression which is (…) "never expect someone to get it, if their job,
their status or their income depends on not getting it". (Interviewee 1)
Besides the power issue, the VSM might also face culture-related challenges. This can be a consequence,
for example, of the necessary resources bargaining and planning that is supposed to occur as a two-sided
conversation instead of blindly imposed by the management:
But this whole thing about the leap from saying “Okay, I'm in middle management and now
[after the VSM intervention] I'm providing a service to the people underneath me and I need to
respond to their needs rather than just tell them what to do every day” — it's a big change for
a lot of people. (Interviewee 8)
As well as an effect of the distribution of power and, inevitably, responsibility:
[narrating the reaction of a participant that had taken a workshop conducted by the
interviewee] One woman said: “This is awful, I just really hate this. (…) I just want to come in
to work, do what I'm told and go home. I don't want any autonomy.” (Interviewee 8)
4.5 Different thinking approaches (linear vs systemic thinking)
The majority of the interviewees reported a still prevalent tendency for organisations to function in terms
of linear thinking and to resist to holistic approaches:

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(…) the cultural blind spot is to do with the fact that everybody tries to go about doing things
on the assumption that an organisation is a kind of machine, is kind of mechanistic. (Interviewee
3)
The resistance or rejection of models that are able to represent more sophisticated and complex concepts
(which, in the case of the VSM, translate into a recursive model) is also an issue:
The idea of fractality still worries a lot of people in my field, they still want to have single layer
models that are non-fractal. (Interviewee 1)
4.6 Learning obstacles
A large number of interviewees, especially those more connected to training and education, reported a
number of issues in this respect. The complex nature of the model was very often mentioned as a reason
why availability and quality of learning is paramount:
(…) considered complex (…), and to actually be a relational and a recursive model is
considered quite challenging by a lot of people. (Interviewee 5)
Many of the interviewees expressed their feelings regarding how a natural aptitude of people towards a
more linear or systemic kind of thinking could explain the learning difficulties that some people faced:
Examples of people in academia in a university who taught the VSM as part of an MBA and
who discovered that half the people took it on board and understood it and thought it was good,
and half of the people just didn't get it — so I think there's a 50/50 in terms of people's thinking
approach, how people think. (Interviewee 4)
Besides any issues with the learning abilities of the students, there were also mentions of issues related
to the provision of training. On one hand, the availability of expert professionals with deep knowledge
of the material was considered vital, while the insufficiency of courses was deemed problematic:
It's hard to get the training and the experience that you need to use it unless you are very close
to people who have a deep understanding, and in the UK there are very few people who have a
deep understanding. (Interviewee 6)
And:

20
The lack of really short-courses and training sessions (…), there are no small snippets of days
of VSM — it's either an academic course or nothing, so there is no infrastructure to support
anybody who is starting to go on the journey. (Interviewee 7)
Within the context of organisational learning, to the issue of availability of courses and training, an
added pressure was reported by one of the interviewees — the risk of investing in the trainings and then
not having further support:
People in the organisations, I think, find it difficult to engage with it because there are very few
short-courses for them to do, they don't want to enter into a big academic course and they
always say to me "Where can we get a one-off course to learn this ", and then when I've done
one for them they said "We're a little bit frightened of using it moving forward in case we get
stuck and we don't know who [will be there] to help us". (Interviewee 7)
With the added apprehension of becoming dependent on external consultants whose only concern is to
cross-sell training programs:
The impression that some organisations get is that consultants like to use things that are so
complex that only they can understand them so that then you have to keep bringing them back.
And they don't want to (…) start that because then they feel like they are dependent on them
long term. (Interviewee 7)
4.7 Complex framework
The matter of the intrinsic complexity of the VSM was mentioned by the majority of the interviewees,
which did not meet the unrealistic expectations of some practitioners or their clients:
I think it's hard — it's much harder than things like McKinseys' 7-S. (…) For some reason (…)
people expect it to be easy. (…) I have got clients (…) that work in IT and if they're doing
something that is IT-related they expect it to be incredibly complex (…) and to be able to talk
about it in incredible detail. When it comes to redesigning the organisation they expect to be
able to just do it on the back of an envelope. (Interviewee 9)

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The inherent complexity of the framework has implications in the willingness of clients to accept an
intervention where the VSM is used, since requires a certain investment, whether financial or of other
nature:
Mostly because it is too complex as a theory. Consultants like simple things and business men
in particular they like to issue like a recipe, and the VSM doesn't work as a recipe. [It] takes
time, a lot of energy, lot of interaction — if you do it properly, you need to engage the people
in the VSM diagnosis from the beginning and that takes a lot of learning — so let's say that it is
more complex and expensive (putting time and money) way of intervention in an organisation.
So any other thing that you do in an organisation — a Balanced Scorecard, a strategic planning
process or whatever — is easier than doing the VSM. (Interviewee 10)
4.8 The politics of the VSM
4.8.1 Academia
There was another field in which politics issues were mentioned — within the systems community itself,
namely in the academic context:
VSM was side-lined in the systems community. (…) It took a long time to get VSM onto the
[UNIVERSITY A] courses, that was the way to get it more accepted in the systems community.
(Interviewee 9)
One of the reasons provided to explain this situation is the market itself:
Because everything is very market driven — and the market is very driven by standards — and
the standards still don't see the value of this kind of things, then those in academic positions
(…) are going to be trying to stop anything that is too different. (Interviewee 10)
4.8.2 Consultancies
Besides the issues that the model faces in the context of academia, there are a number of challenges
within the practitioner community as well. On one hand, there is the circumstance of the VSM not being
useful as a selling proposition:

22
It's very difficult from a consultant point-of-view because when you put in a bid for a piece of
work, you've got to sell yourself — so if you're trying to sell the VSM and nobody knows what it
is, you never get your bid accepted so you never even step foot in the organisation. (Interviewee
7)
On the other hand, there is little awareness of the existence of the model within the consultant
community itself:
(…) probably because very few know about it. Most of the people working in this area are in
big consultancies, they all have their own methodologies based in traditional business school
methods — VSM is not part of that. (Interviewee 6)
Finally, it was mentioned that some consultancies that use the VSM see it as a trade secret through which
they believe to retain a competitive advantage:
The other reason the VSM hasn't been hasn't been disseminated more is because the VSM has
been immensely valuable for a very small group of VSM consultants — the VSM is their secret
knowledge, they are not going to publicise it and they are not going to demonstrate it or make
it too obvious their methodologies or their tools, because (…) their knowledge is too precious
and they don't want to share it. So many interesting applications are not in the public domain.
(Interviewee 10)
4.9 Diffusion considerations
A number of interviewees were of the opinion that the present moment could represent a moment of
transition regarding the awareness and use of the VSM from a niche type of knowledge into a more
widespread audience. One of the main reasons that was mentioned was a general shift of people and
organisations towards a more systemic thinking approach. The causes for this shift are explored below.
4.9.1 External environment
There was a general sense that changes in the conditions of the external environment and the way that
society has been adapting to them have had an influence in people’s thinking:
I think the ideas have just seeped in to the collective consciousness. Complexity and systems ideas
— it's not such a shock to the thinking. (…) And if you think about management techniques, they're
all still based on linear causality, and people have moved. (Interviewee 9)

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One of the reasons presented for this change has to do with the current socio-economic situation that
people, companies and organisations have had to face in recent years:
I think with the financial problems the country has had for the last 5 or 6 years, we have seen an
increased interest and there is no doubt that when the economy is in a mess, more people are
interested in this sort of solution. (Interviewee 6)
Although the perceptions of the interviewees were generally cautions, and not overly optimistic:
The crises that we are hitting are such that people will realise that this knowledge is valuable and
needed to solve the world's problems (…) I suspect that we're going to have to see more crises
before that is generally recognised. (Interviewee 3)
The change in the way that people and organisations function and coordinate themselves, and the rise
of holacracy were also mentioned:
I think what's going to happen is that there will be quite dramatic changes in the way we
organise ourselves in all sorts of different contexts, particularly in institutions and business,
and Stafford's work at some point, I believe, will become recognised as the most comprehensive
theory which says “if you want to organise yourself on the basis of self-organising, creative,
empowered, unleashed human beings, instead of cogs in the machine doing exactly what they're
told, than you need a new theory”. (Interviewee 8)
4.9.2 Technology
Technological advancements were regarded as another potential source of change:
Blockchain technology (…) I think there is an appetite in communities like that and that is where
it will get adopted and it will be adopted with the creation of a new form of enterprise that will
effective replace the corporate bureaucratic organisations that we are familiar with now and it
will grow up from a new kind of eco-system (…) re-thinking money, re-thinking what an
enterprise consists of. (Interviewee 3)
4.9.3 Education

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Finally, it was commented that education and the inclusion of courses related to systems in general, and
those that included the VSM in particular, could represent another reason behind the mentioned shift:
It may be [that] the courses like the UNIVERSITY A have pursued with it for a number of years
now, (…) it was new then, now it's regular and it's ongoing — so the first people coming through
are spreading that word of mouth, others are coming on board now, so I think that kind of
academic accessibility is helping. (Interviewee 7)
4.9.4 Crossing the chasm?
All of the interviewees agreed that the people who were aware of the existence of the VSM, in any of
their given fields (which included academic and consultant roles related to, namely, enterprise
architecture, organisational design and transformation, knowledge management, and IT governance)
were relatively small — no more than 5%:
The wider industry probably doesn’t know that the VSM exists (…), all the big consultancies
they have not a single clue of what the VSM is. (Interviewee 2)
In turn, when asked about the number of practitioners, in any of the given fields of the various
interviewees, the provided estimate was lower still, with 2% being the highest figure but mostly closer
to 1%:
Somehow it never generated a big enough movement like, for example, Lean or Agile.
(Interviewee 5)
Despite these reduced numbers regarding awareness and use of the framework, the reasons such as the
above-mentioned lead to the feeling by a few of the interviewees that the VSM might now in a
transitional period where it could break through to a more widespread audience. A couple of them
specifically considered that this stage might correspond to the crossing the chasm phase as presented by
Geoffrey Moore (1999):
We probably are just passing the chasm in the moment, we've had the Early Adopters, (…) we're
moving into a world where the people (…) would not describe themselves as systems thinkers,
[and yet] they want to know what systems and VSM can do for them and I think that is the other
side of the chasm, and we're trying to commoditise, (…) we want to be able to offer things that
people can take way and use. (Interviewee 6)

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4.10 Conclusion
The empirical data acquired through the interviewing process revealed a number of insights that will be
explored in the Discussion section below and which serve as basis for the findings of this Dissertation.
It should be noted that besides their perspectives regarding barriers to the diffusion of the VSM, the
interviewees were also prompted to present solutions of how they might be overcome. Some of these
suggestions will be presented in the Discussion section and considered within its context.

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5 DISCUSSION
5.1 Introduction
This section presents an analysis of the results of the interviews, by considering how they relate with
the research questions and by exploring them in light of the insights presented by some interviewees.
As a result of those insights, the Diffusion of Innovation theory (Rogers, 2003) is be used as a platform
for the discussion.
Thus, the identified potential barriers that might be preventing the dissemination of the awareness and
use of the VSM are analysed in context of the characteristics that affect the rate of diffusion. Finally,
attention is given to two of the factors that must be considered regarding the diffusion of innovation —
social system and communication channels.
The results of the conducted interviews were overwhelmingly aligned with the findings of the Literature
Review. This was the case regarding the benefits and validity of the VSM, but also in terms of the
perceived challenges that the VSM faces and that could be preventing its diffusion towards a more
widespread audience, which ranged from application issues, through different thinking approaches, to
learning obstacles. However, the interviewees also provided insights into the politics of the VSM and
also presented their considerations regarding the current stage of the VSM in terms of diffusion. Those
barriers and considerations are analysed below.
5.2 The VSM in the Diffusion of Innovation Lifecycle
During the preparation of this dissertation, it became apparent that the question regarding the
dissemination of the VSM would be more fittingly posed in the context of a theory of diffusion.
Although this perspective did not emerge during the Literature Review, a few of the interviewees
provided their perspective in this sense. In their view, it could be the case that, considering the awareness
of the VSM in the context of Rogers’ theory of the diffusion of innovations, the VSM could be moving
disseminating from the (current) Early Adopters, and crossing Moore’s Chasm (as will be further
explained below).
Rogers (2003) identified five categories of adopters, named after their willingness to adopt an innovation
or new idea — as seen below in Figure 2. Additionally, he considers that four factors must be taken into
account in terms of diffusion — the innovation in question, a social system, communication channels,
and time. For the purpose of this dissertation, the idea under consideration is, naturally, the VSM; the
social system in question includes individuals that range from those that are interested in the VSM from

27
a theoretical point of view to those that are interested in its practical application; the communication
channels, which include mass media and interpersonal communication, are more deeply analysed below.
According to the information presented by the interviewees, the extent to which individuals are aware
and use the VSM is quite low, and it was argued that those individuals would be Early Adopters within
Rogers’ Innovation Adoption Lifecycle.
Figure 2: Adopter Categorisation on the Basis of Innovativeness (Rogers, 2003)
In Rogers’s words, this means that the innovation in question in not being yet transmitted throughout its
social system. However, as previously pointed out, the interviewees also mentioned that they felt that it
could be case that the awareness of the VSM might now be in a transitional stage that precedes the
dissemination of an innovation towards the Early Majority, and which Geoffrey Moore described as
“crossing the chasm” (Moore, 1999), represented in Figure 3, below:

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Figure 3: Moore’s Chasm (Barker, 2011)
According to Moore (1999), this is a transitioning stage between Early Adopters and Early Majority
that, if not successfully crossed, will mean that the idea or product will die out or remain niche. In terms
of the VSM, this would mean that VSM needs to align to those needs and wants of the individuals and
companies that compose the Early Majority: solutions and convenience.
5.3 The VSM and the characteristics that affect the rate of diffusion
Taking these considerations further, this dissertation analyses the diffusion process of the VSM using
Roger’s Diffusion of Innovations theory (Rogers, 2003), and reflects throughout the remaining of this
section about the diffusion rate dependencies that might affect the VSM.
Rogers (2003) identified a number of factors that characterise the rate of diffusion of an innovation or
idea. From those, this Dissertation focuses on the most relevant ones considering the data gathered about
the VSM: (1) perceived relative advantage or benefit, (2) riskiness of purchase, (3) ease of use —
Complexity, (4) immediacy of the benefits, (5) observability, (6) price, (7) extent of behavioural changes
required. This dissertation will examine the results of the literature research and the interviews research
in light of these characteristics.
Perceived advantage or benefit
The empirical data overwhelmingly confirms that the VSM is an effective framework to conduct
organisational diagnosis and assist in business transformation, and this is line with the existing literature.

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Moreover, researchers have tested the VSM and reported the obtained results in academic essays
confirming its benefits and validity regarding other methods, so it could be argued that there is a
perceived relative advantage in comparison to other approaches.
However, the undertaken research revealed that the perception of these benefits and advantages seem to
be mostly circumscribed to the academic circles. Suggestions proposed by the interviewees to overcome
this situation include publicising evidence and results of successful interventions using the VSM, and
especially involving recognisable companies or brands.
Riskiness of purchase
The adoption of innovations with a low risk is considered easier, since the consequences of a failed
implementation will carry less losses (Meyer and Goes, 1988). This characteristic is particularly
connected to the complexity of the innovation — which will be discussed below — but this dissertation
has already concluded how, so far, the VSM has been a framework that demands high knowledge
requirements. These include learning the model, understanding the cybernetic mechanisms that underpin
it, and acquiring practical knowledge through practical application.
As such, and as remarked by one interviewee, organisations are apprehensive to commit to a framework
that they feel that they might not master completely, and are concerned about the risk of becoming
dependent on consultants that charge them high fees whenever they require help. This consideration
makes the adoption of the VSM carry a substantial risk, financial and otherwise.
It should be noted that high knowledge requirements do not mean, automatically, that an innovation will
not be adopted, provided the existence, namely, of support either from previous adopters or assured by
other sources (Aubert and Hamel, 2001). However, as it was noted by some of the interviewees,
supporting institutions seem to be either few or non-existent, therefore, not providing a significant
attenuation of the above-mentioned risk.
Ease of use — complexity
According to Rogers, complexity concerns how the innovation is perceived as being easy to understand
and put to use (Rogers, 2003). Regarding this topic, a number of things deserve attention in the context
of the VSM, since various of the analysed issues are directly or indirectly related this subject, namely:
the linguistic aspects of the VSM, the learning difficulties, and the methodological challenges.

30
The findings from the literature and the empirical data regarding the issues about the linguistic
challenges were largely aligned. The original work of Beer was generally considered not easily
accessible, especially for the non-initiated, both in terms of the terminology used and illustrations
provided. Thus, it could be inferred that a breakthrough in terms of the presentation and representation
of the VSM, especially making use of the latest technologies and computer software, is yet to be found.
In this context, potential solutions suggested included the adaptation of the terminology as a technique
to make it more accessible, to the creation of more modern and appealing graphical representations,
including through the use of computer animation.
This situation seems to be closely related to the learning obstacles. As revealed by the literature research
and confirmed by the interviewees, there is lack of appropriate material for beginners, as well as a
scarcity of methodological literature to aid in the conduction of a VSM intervention. There are some
papers that provide some suggestions and contribute with practical ideas, but these remain within the
circumscription of research work and the academia. The empirical data not only confirmed this lacking
regarding the available literature or the insufficiency of practical manuals, but extended it to the
insufficiency of workshops, short-courses and institutional support that allows organisations not to
become dependent on external consultancy intervention if they decide to make use of the VSM and
require help along the way.
This indicates that, despite some advances, there is still space for further development within the
academic research in this area and, especially, that more development in terms of methodology is vital
for the practitioner community to become more engaged and confident regarding the application of the
VSM. Potential solutions might include, as suggested: more institutions providing training by experts
and support on the use of the VSM; the creation of books and practical manuals that present step-by-
step methodologies to the use of the VSM; and the development of tools (conceptual and perhaps
technological) to aid in VSM interventions.
Immediacy of benefits
One revealing aspect observed during the dissertation’s collection of empirical data was that most of the
interviewees argued that it took them several years to fully master the VSM — adding that with each
application they would acquire new insights. These statements indicate that the VSM has an overall
steep learning curve — as might be expected of a framework that, as was explained above, is complex
and requires application experience to acquire a deep understanding.

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However, the majority of the interviewees reported that, after understanding the basic concepts behind
the framework, it would provide them with almost immediate insights that they could benefit from in
real-world applications. As such, the interviewees advocated as well the immediacy of benefits that the
VSM can provide.
Observability
According to Rogers (2003, p. 16), observability consists in “the degree to which the results of an
innovation are visible to others”. There are some examples that illustrate the legitimacy and benefits of
the VSM by referring to more relatable applications, such as a NASA project (Woodman and Krasa,
2016). However, these are retrospective analysis that consider how the cases align with the principles
and framework of the VSM and, as such, the VSM was not the framework used to design or diagnose
the organisations from the beginning. As a result, according to the interviewees, these cases do not
inspire a considerable level of confidence in potential adopters regarding the results that these examples
claim that the VSM is capable of.
Hence the point made by some of the interviewees regarding the importance of developing case studies,
presentations and papers to showcase the unique selling proposition of the VSM and the added-value it
can bring, especially with high-profile companies and organisations.
Extent of behavioural changes required
Two different considerations can be made regarding this aspect — one about the opposition of linear
and systemic types of thinking; and another about the politics of organisations.
Regarding the first aspect, the linear type of thinking that became a legacy of the industrial age
management, according to both the literature and the interviews, is still very much prevalent within the
management field. However, as previously mentioned, the VSM is a framework that aids in the design
and the diagnosis of organisations through a systemic approach. In the case of an individual with a linear
type of thinking, a changing mental frameworks could be regarded as a required change of behaviour
(albeit, a mental or psychological one).
Regarding the second aspect, several of the interviewees testified how the politics in an organisation
could present a challenge. When the purpose of using the VSM is to effect some kind of change in an
organisation, undertaking the transformation process itself is where the crux of the matter often lays. In
this context, the challenge that the VSM might pose to the status quo, an issue evidenced both by the

32
Literature Review and the empirical data, might require a considerable change in terms of people’s
behaviour.
Taking both aspects above into consideration, a number of interviewees argued that it could be difficult
or even, in some cases, impossible to implement a transformation based on the use of the VSM without
undertaking some sort of organisational culture change as well.
5.4 Social system
As mentioned before, in addition to the above-analysed attributes, the rate of diffusion of an innovation
also depends on the social systems. Rogers (2003) states that a social system is defined by external
factors (such as mass media) and internal factors (such as interpersonal relationships and distance from
though leaders). These aspects are further explored below.
Regarding the participants of a social system, Rogers (2003) uses the concept of homophily to describe
essentially similar people (in terms of values, social status, etc.). Although the transfer of ideas is easier
between homophilous individuals, the author explains that a certain degree of heterophily is required
for real diffusion to exist (otherwise, no novel concepts would actually be exchanged). As such, the ideal
situation, according to Rogers, would be for the individuals in question to be homophilous in every
aspect, except regarding the new concept. In the context of the VSM, there seem to be a number of
heterophilous participants that compose the social system, namely, the individuals that belong to the
academia, the practitioner community, and the organisations themselves that might benefit from the use
of the VSM.
Additionally, a social system is impacted by the social structure of that system — the “patterned
arrangements of the units in a system” (Rogers, 2003, p.24). In the context of the VSM, one significant
observation that emerged from the empirical data was that the existence of academic papers attesting
the benefits and validity of the VSM does not automatically translate into a general awareness and use
of the same. This circumstance make apparent that not only the academic and the practitioner
communities do not always overlap, but that sometimes there is even a disconnect between one and the
other.
5.5 Communication channels

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Regarding the communication channels, this discussion considers the VSM in the context of some of
the main factors that influence the participants of a social system: mass media, opinion leaders and
interpersonal channels (Rogers, 2003).
The VSM has not had a breakthrough in terms of mass media, as follows from the research presented
above. The production of knowledge — both in terms of developing the understanding and
interpretations of the existing literature and regarding the creation of new knowledge — seems to be
fundamentally circumscribed to the academia. Furthermore, the empirical data revealed that the
development of knowledge within the academia is not enough to disseminate the ideas regarding the
VSM. As suggested by some of the interviewees, there is a need to develop more books and manuals
directed towards a wider audience, both in terms of style and type of publication. An interviewee even
suggested the need for a VSM for Dummies, or a work along the lines of the Business Model Canvas
(Osterwalder and Pigneur, 2010).
Regarding opinion leaders, these can play in important role in the evaluation step of the decision-making
process, as they often possess considerable social and media exposure, and exert a certain amount of
influence over other members of a social system (Rogers, 2003). Regarding this aspect, it was reported
by one of the interviewees that there are very few individual ambassadors for the VSM, and that more
are needed to spread awareness about the framework in a convincing and meaningful way.
Finally, the interpersonal channels hold a considerable importance in terms of dissemination of ideas,
especially at the level of the persuasion phase of decision-making (Rogers, 2003). In this sense, Parisot
(1997) highlights peer observation as a crucial factor in encouraging individuals to adopt a new idea and
contribute to its diffusion. The empirical data reveals a lacking in this aspect, and the interviewees even
presented suggestions such as encouraging consultants and companies that use the VSM to share this
fact.
5.6 Conclusion
The research questions that directed this dissertation were provided with answers successively, firstly
by the Literature Review and secondly through confirmation presented by the empirical data. The
interviewing process contributed decisively to forward the research into the context of Rogers’ diffusion
of innovation theory, which allowed to acquire a deeper understanding of the main drivers of this
Dissertation: understanding not only what barriers the VSM possesses that might be preventing its
dissemination, but also how can those barriers be contextualised in terms of a diffusion theory.

34
The benefits and validity of the VSM identified earlier in the Literature Review were overwhelmingly
confirmed by the empirical data. In the same way, issues that could present a barrier to the diffusion of
the VSM were also corroborated by the interviewees. Following insights of some of the interviewees,
this Dissertation explored the awareness of the VSM within the context of Rogers’ theory of the
diffusion of innovation (Rogers, 2003) and analysed the characteristics that the diffusion of the VSM
might be dependent on.
Regarding how the VSM withstands facing the characteristics upon which diffusion is dependent, the
following was found: despite the perceived advantages of the VSM, these are mostly kept within
academic circles and not disseminated towards the practitioner community; the high knowledge
requirements of learning the VSM and the fear that organisations have of becoming dependent of
consultants make its adoption a high risk one; the linguistic aspects, the learning obstacles and the lack
of methodological do not contribute to make easier a framework that is, intrinsically, considered
complex; however, despite its complexity, it was also concluded that in spite of taking years to master
completely, almost immediate benefits could be drawn from the framework; the results of the VSM
were found not be widely visible to the general social system, being mostly confined to the academia;
finally, it was learned that the VSM may require a considerable extent of behavioural changes.
Additionally, the social system of the VSM was found to be disconnected when considering the
relationships between the academia and the practitioner communities. In the context of the
communication channels, knowledge production was observed to be mostly circumscribed to the
academia, and not flowing towards mass media channels of management and organisational design;
finally, there seems to be an absence of individual ambassadors and opinion leaders; and the
interpersonal channels seem to be somewhat lacking.
From the considerations above, it can be concluded that, regardless of its value, the VSM is still mostly
characterised by conditions that contribute to a slow rate of diffusion. Furthermore, it is important to
consider the concerns of participants of a social system before and after the chasm: while Early Adopters
focus on performance, the Early Majority seeks solutions and convenience. From the analysis above it
could be concluded that the way that the VSM is mostly presented and taught today, is still far from a
perfected solution: a VSM framework made simple to understand and easy to implement, with an
adequate price in relation to other propositions, and that is distributed efficiently through the right
channels.

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6 CONCLUSIONS
6.1 Introduction
The benefits and the validity of the VSM have been examined and documented throughout several
decades, particularly in the context of academic research. For this reason, the main question that drove
this Dissertation was the following — if a tool is deemed to have great value and has been proven
effective, why is it not used or even known by a majority of professionals to whom it would be relevant?
Although several papers and essays have mentioned characteristics and barriers that might provide some
explanations, the question of its diffusion has not been address in itself in a research project. As such,
this research presents a novel contribution on several levels: the conduction of interviews with
individuals connected to the VSM from a multiplicity of contexts and with different levels of experience
— providing a rich picture of the real-word perception of the framework and of the obstacles faced
regarding its learning and application; the analysis of the VSM and its surrounding context, in light of
the characteristics of the rate of diffusion as presented by Rogers; finally, given the emphasis given to
the aspects related to issue of diffusion, the findings obtained in this research project might allow to
provide insights to other frameworks or models, both in terms of understanding their state in the
diffusion lifecycle and in terms of the strategies that might be worth pursuing to allow them to improve
their diffusion rate.
Through the conducted research, this dissertation found that the majority of the characteristics of the
VSM upon which the rate of diffusion is dependent still conform to those that preclude what is necessary
to cross Moore’s Chasm — and act, at this stage, mostly as barriers to diffusion. However, this
dissertation also covers, through the suggestions presented by the interviewees, a number of changes
and improvements that could be undertaken, as well as the circumstances that the participants of the
social system could focus on in order to allow for diffusion to occur faster, or to even fulfil those
conditions necessary to cross the Chasm.
In terms of suggestions for further research, it might be interesting to obtain empirical data from other
groups of people, since this would allow to amplify the sample pool. Additionally, case studies focusing
specifically on each of the analysed characteristics of diffusion and put them to the test might provide
with further insights regarding how they could be overcome.
The VSM is a powerful tool for the diagnosis and design of organisations. Its awareness and use is still
not widely disseminated, even though it would arguably be highly beneficial to a large number of
organisations. This Dissertation shows that the VSM possesses a number of characteristics that slow

36
down its rate of diffusion and which have been preventing its dissemination towards a mainstream
audience. However, once those barriers have been identifying and categorised, a path drawn by the
potential solutions becomes apparent. Ultimately, the diffusion of the VSM will depend on the dynamics
of the participants of the social system and the interests and motivations that drive them.

37
7 BIBLIOGRAPHY
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40
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
I would first like to thank my supervisor, Dr Raúl Leal of the Department of Space and Climate Physics
at University College London. His insights and steering questions allowed to me to guide this
Dissertation into a fascinating direction.
I would like to acknowledge the valuable contribution of the interviewees who accepted to take part in
the research, and thank them for taking the time and effort to share their thoughts and experience on the
matter.
Finally, I am grateful to my family, who tolerated periods of less communication during the time of this
MSc, and especially to my wife for providing me with support and inspiration each and every day.

41
APPENDICES
Appendix 1 — The Viable System Model (a brief overview)
Appendix 2 — Project Concept Report

42
Appendix 1
The Viable System Model (a brief overview)
• Designed to model of the organisational structure of any viable or autonomous system
• To illustrate it, Beer used the human nervous system as an example.
Diagram of Stafford Beer’s Viable System Model (Beer, 1979)
Model represents:
1 - Blob: Environment
2 - Circle: Primary activities
3 - Square: Management
v System 1 - process operations: primary activities
[function that implements at least part of the key transformation of the organisation]
v System 2 – sub-process coordination: information channels and bodies that allow
o the primary activities from System 1 to communicate between each other, and
o System 3 to monitor and co-ordinate the activities within System 1.
o (think scheduling; allocation of resources, etc.)
v System 3 – management: structures and controls that
o establish the rules, resources, rights and responsibilities of System 1, and
o provide an interface with Systems 4/5.

43
v System 4 – strategy:
o looks outwards to the environment, to
o monitor how the organization needs to adapt in order to remain viable.
v System 5 – policy/purpose:
o policy decisions within the organization, to
o balance demands from different parts of the organization, and
o steer the organization as a whole.
v Algedonic alerts
o from the Greek: pain and pleasure
o alarms and rewards that are sent through the various levels of recursion, when
performance fails or exceeds capability.
v Environment: necessary to identify the domain of action of the system.
Components of the VSM:
• 5 interacting subsystems
• Systems 1-3: here and now
• System 4: there and then (strategic responses to the effects of external, environmental and future
demands on the organization)
• System 5: balancing the “here and now” with the “there and then” (in order to maintain the
organisation viable)
Conclusion: very comprehensive and holistic model
• Consideration of environment
• Parts and their Interaction
• Information channels and feedback properties to ensure viability

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