1. Paul C Redford. App ref No: 0932329 PhD Research Proposal 18/06/09
Perception and Decision-Making in Young Tennis Players:
Assessment to Development
A recurrent theme in expertise research, stemming from De Groot’s (1965) seminal
work in chess, is that the key characteristics which differentiate experts from novices are the
amount and organisation of knowledge, rather than computational abilities; indeed, recent
neuroimaging work led by Brunel University researchers confirms that experts store domain-
specific visual information in their long-term memory for rapid and efficient retrieval
(Campitelli, Gobet, Head, Buckley, & Parker, 2007). Moreover, those attaining expert status
in chess (i.e., Grandmaster) at the youngest ages began their training at 6½ years of age, on
average (Gobet & Campitelli, 2007).
Expert tennis players are better able to predict shot direction than are novices, even
when presented with limited visual information (e.g., Abernethy, Zawi, & Jackson, 2008;
Huys, Caňal-Bruland, Hagemann, Beek, Smeeton, & Williams, 2009); such experts also
possess greater awareness of the information on which their judgments are based (Jackson &
Mogan, 2007). This ability is crucial to elite tennis performance (Williams, Davids, &
Williams, 1999). Due to varying situational demands, tennis players are required to rapidly
shift attention towards an opponent’s preliminary movements and postural cues. Therefore,
the ability to efficiently and reliably gather, sort, and process perceptual information during
play and respond appropriately under changing situational demands is critical to match
outcome (Caserta & Singer, 2007). Moreover, the use of such explicit knowledge has been
found to improve early development of motor skills in children (Curran & Keele, 1993).
Nonetheless, implicitly-learnt skills (i.e., those learnt without explicit rule formation) are less
likely to break down when the exponent is under pressure (Masters, 1992), thus implicit
perceptual training in sport has become increasingly popular.

2. Paul C Redford. App ref No: 0932329 PhD Research Proposal 18/06/09
Elite level tennis is played at such speed that temporal pressure often exceeds basic
human information processing constraints (Williams, 2009). For example, elite players often
return serves reaching speeds of 240 km.h1
(men) and 205 km.h1
(women). Despite high
demands, it is often commented that the world’s top players are always in the right place at
the right time. It is generally accepted that the expert’s perceptual advantage results from
enhanced sports-specific cognitive knowledge structures, acquired through years of
deliberate, purposeful practice (Ericsson, Krampe, & Tesch-Romer, 1993; Ericcson, 1996).
As postulated by Ericsson et al. (1993), it requires approximately 10,000 hours practice to
become an expert, which equates to 20 hours per week of quality practice over a 10 year
period. The current challenge is in determining appropriate methods for developing expertise
with maximum efficiency to accelerate this process.
Perceptual ability and consequent decision-making in tennis have successfully been
trained using implicit video-based (Abernethy, Wood, & Parks, 1999; Farrow, Chivers,
Hardingham, & Sachse, 1998; Singer et al., 1994) and explicit instructional (Williams, Ward,
Smeeton, & Allen, 2004) approaches. The development of sport-specific perceptual and
cognitive strategies (e.g. situational awareness, anticipation, and decision making), which
enhance cognitive processing and in turn physical performance, may reduce the time related
pressure of tennis, whilst facilitating perceptual skills acquisition. Despite multiple variables
involved in the outcome of externally paced sports, the primary difference between success
and failure in tennis is often believed to manifest in perceptual capabilities (Caserta & Singer,
2007).
However, studies have typically been confined to young adult participants, despite the
fact that children may be more responsive to such interventions: prioritisation of our sensory
systems undergoes a developmental shift in early years, such that early reliance on tactile-
kinaesthetic information is superseded by visual system predominance at around seven or

3. Paul C Redford. App ref No: 0932329 PhD Research Proposal 18/06/09
eight years of age (Williams, 1983); this development is mirrored in significant tennis timing
accuracy improvements between the ages of 7 and 10 years (Benguigui & Ripoll, 1998).
The proposed programme of research aims to identify the perceptual and decision-
making characteristics that distinguish stronger from weaker players in a large (N ~ 40) group
of young tennis players aged 7-11 years based at a national HPC, using within- and between-
age group comparisons. This information will be utilised to develop and implement
idiosyncratic perceptual/decision-making training programmes which utilise either implicit or
explicit learning paradigms. It is anticipated that (i) superior attunement to key features of an
opponent’s movements will differentiate young national level tennis players from other age-
matched players, (ii) that a programme targeted at drawing young players’ attention to these
features will improve performance at all levels, and (iii) that implicitly-trained young athletes
will demonstrate superior decision-making under pressure. The unique participant pool offers
the opportunity to obtain cross-sectional and longitudinal/developmental data from a group of
young athletes; something which has hitherto not been done.
Access to young participants has been provisionally granted, pursuant to School
Research Ethics Committee approval. The first stage of the research will comprise semi-
structured interviews with UK national level tennis coaches from a range of HPCs, to identify
features of the visual environment to which they believe young players aged 7-11 years
should be attuned; and the perceptual and DM abilities which differentiate national- from
lower-level players. The information derived will form the basis of cross-sectional large
(~50) group perceptual/DM testing, in which I will use regression analyses to derive the
strongest predictors of successful performance; these elements will consequently be
incorporated into video- and computer-based training programmes, for which data will be
collected longitudinally (c. 1 year). Training will comprise of still and video footage, with
and without feedback (see, Maxwell, Masters, & Eves, 2003). Utilising (a) temporal

4. Paul C Redford. App ref No: 0932329 PhD Research Proposal 18/06/09
occlusion and neutralisation (see, Huys et al. 2009), (b) point light and natural view footage
(see, Williams et al., 2006), (c) highlighting of key areas (e.g., active limb), and (d) post
retention interval testing. Finally, I shall investigate the dependent measures involved in
expert tennis players’ perception, utilising (i) response accuracy and time (e.g., E-Prime;
reaction mats), and (ii) EMG, to differentiate role of initial response component versus
movement efficiency/inefficiency.
It is anticipated that (i) superior attunement to key features of an opponent’s
movements will differentiate young national level tennis players from other age-matched
players; (ii) that a programme targeted at drawing young players’ attention to these features
will improve performance at all levels; and (iii) that implicitly-trained players will
demonstrate superior DM under pressure.
In conclusion, my research proposal presents the opportunity to obtain high-quality
cross-sectional and longitudinal/developmental data from a group of very young but high-
level tennis players, an age group which is presently under-researched.

5. Paul C Redford. App ref No: 0932329 PhD Research Proposal 18/06/09
References
Abernethy, B., Wood, J. M., & Parks, S. (1999). Can the anticipatory skills of experts be
learned by novices? Research Quarterly for Exercise and Sport, 70, 313-318.
Abernethy, B., Zawi, K., & Jackson, R. C. (2008). Expertise and attunement to kinematic
constraints. Perception advance online publication.
Benguigui N., & Ripoll H. (1998). Effects of tennis practice on the coincidence timing
accuracy of adults and children. Research Quarterly for Exercise and Sport, 69, 217-
223.
Bilalić, M., McLeod, P., & Gobet, F. (2007). Does chess need intelligence? — A study with
young chess players. Intelligence, 35, 457–470.
Campitelli, G., Gobet, F., Head, K., Buckley, M., & Parker, A. (2007). Brain localisation of
memory chunks in chessplayers. International Journal of Neuroscience, 117, 1641-
1659.
Caserta, R. J., & Singer, R. N. (2007). The Effectiveness of Situational Awareness Learning
in Response to Video Tennis Match Situations. Journal of Applied Sport Psychology,
19, 125-141.
Curran, T., & Keele, S. W. (1993). Attentional and nonattentional forms of sequence
learning. Journal of Experimental Psychology. Learning, Memory, & Cognition, 19,
189-202.
De Groot, A. (1965). Thought and choice in chess. The Hague: Mouton.
Ericcson, K. A. (1996). The road to excellence. New Jersey: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
Ericsson, K. A., Krampe, R. T., & Tesch-Romer, C. (1993). The role of deliberate practice in
the acquisition of expert performance. Psychological Review, 100 , 363-406.

6. Paul C Redford. App ref No: 0932329 PhD Research Proposal 18/06/09
Farrow, D., Chivers, P., Hardingham, C., & Sachse, S. (1998). The effect of video-based
perceptual training on the tennis return of serve. International Journal of Sport
Psychology, 29, 231–242.
Gobet. F., & Campitelli, G. (2007). The role of domain-specific practice, handedness, and
starting age in chess. Developmental Psychology, 43, 159-172.
Huys, R., Canal-Bruland, R., Hagemann, N., Beek, P.J., Smeeton, N.J. & Williams, A.M.
(2009) Global information pickup underpins anticipation of tennis shot direction.
Journal of Motor Behavior, 41, (2). pp. 158-170.
Jackson R. C., & Mogan, P. (2007). Advance visual information awareness and anticipation
skill. Journal of Motor Behavior, 39, 341-351.
Masters, R.S.W. (1992). Knowledge, knerves and know-how: The role of explicit versus
implicit knowledge in the breakdown of a complex motor skill under pressure. British
Journal of Psychology, 83, 343-358.
Maxwell, J. P., Masters, R. S. W. & Eves, F. F. (2003) The role of working memory in motor
learning and performance. Consciousness and Cognition, 12, 376-402.
Nideffer, R. M. (1976). Test of attentional and interpersonal style. Journal of Personality and
Social Psychology, 34, 394-404.
Singer, R. N., Caraugh, J. H., Chen, D., Steinberg, G. M., Frehlich, S. G., & Wang, L. (1994).
Training mental quickness in beginning/intermediate tennis players. The Sport
Psychologist, 8, 305-318.
Williams, A. M. (2009). Anticipation and skill in racket sports. In A. Lees, D. Cabello, & G.
Torres, Science and Racket Sports IV (pp. 145-153). Routledge.
Williams, A. M., Davids, K., & Williams, J. G. (1999). Visual Perception and Action in
Sport. London: E. & F.N Spon.

7. Paul C Redford. App ref No: 0932329 PhD Research Proposal 18/06/09
Williams, A.M., Ward, P., Smeeton, N.J. & Allen, D. (2004). Developing anticipation skills
in tennis using on-court instruction: Perception versus perception and action. Journal of
Applied Sport Psychology, 16, 350-360.
Williams, H.G. (1983). Perceptual and Motor Development. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall.