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upload RADIATION DETECTION AND MEASUREMENT.pptx
1.
2. INTRODUCTION
We cannot detect or measure ionizing radiation with
our senses
To detect or measure radiation we must need
instruments
Design, construction, type and use of detectors depends
upon the properties and nature of radiation
3. RADIATION DETECTION
Suitable device is required to detect and measure the
amount and energy of radiation
These devices consists
1. detector in which interaction takes place
2. measuring device to record the interaction
4. For measuring the activity
(curie, becquerel)
For measuring the rate of radiation
(mR/h, muSv/h)
for personal monitoring
(mrem, mSv)
5. IMPORTANT EFFECTS on which detection of
radiation based are
1. IONIZATION
2. LUMINISCENCE
3. PHOTOGRAPHIC EFFECT
4. THERMOLUMINESCENCE
5. CHEMICAL EFFECT
6. BIOLOGICAL EFFECT
6. IONIZATION
This effect consists of removing electrons from
originally neutral atoms or molecules, giving rise to
positive ions and negative ions
Gaseous and solid media are used for ionization
1. Ionization chambers
2. Proportional chambers
3. Geiger muller counters
4. Semiconductor detectors
7. LUMINESCENCE
Process in which radiation excites the atom of a
material and its energy is converted in to visible light
flash
Using light sensitive photomultipliers , the light
flashes are converted in to electrical pulses
Scintillators
(scintillator coupled to a photomultiplier forms
scintillation detector)
8. PHOTOGRAPHIC EFFECT
Film exposed by x rays or gamma rays, will form a
latent image with black metallic silver
The degree of blackness can be measured by means of
optical density, which is proportional to radiation
exposure
9. THERMOLUMINISCENCE
Radiation can impart energies to certain crystalline
materials (lithium fluoride,calcium sulfate ) or certain
glasses, which can store these energies for long time
The energy stored can be later released in the form of
light or luminiscence by heating these materials
The quantity of light released can be measured and
correlated to radiation dose
TL DOSIMETERS
10. CHEMICAL EFFECTS
Radiation can cause chemical changes (oxidation of
ferrous sulfate to ferric sulfate)
Radiation can also cause change of colouration in
certain plastics
These changes can be measured and correlated to
radiation dose
11. BIOLOGICAL EFFECTS
Radiation exposure to the body can be measured by
biological methods
Eg; analysis of blood for chromosomal aberrations in
persons exposed to radiation dose of above 10-1000rem
12. DETECTORS
Radiation interacts with detector materials and
deposits energy by ionization and excitation
The energy deposited by single interaction is very
small and hence all detectors need signal
amplification
In addition, the detector system performs signal
processing and signal storage with the help of
electronic circuit
13. SIGNAL PROCESSING
It can be done by pulse mode or current mode
Pulse mode: the signal from each interaction is
processed individually
Current mode: the electrical signals from
individual interactions are averaged together and give
net current signal
14. PULSE MODE
Two interactions must be seperated by a time
interval, so that it can produce two distinct
signals
This time interval is called dead time of the
detector
Dead time depends upon the components in
the detector system
(eg. Multichannel annalyser in GM counter
detector)
Dead times of different detectors vary widely
15. CURRENT MODE
The electrical signal of each interaction is integrated
to give net electric signal
Hence current mode operation is suitable for high
interaction rates to avoid dead time losses
16. DETECTOR EFFICIENCY
It is a measure of its ability to detect radiation
It is a product of geometric efficiency and intrinsic
efficiency
17. DETECTOR EFFICIENCY
GEOMETRIC EFFICIENCY- fraction of emitted photon that
reaches detector
no of photons reaching the detector
no of photons emitted by source
INTRINSIC EFFICIENCY-fraction of particular photons that
are detected
no of photons detected
no of photons reaching the detector
( intrinsic efficiency is often called quantum detection
efficiency(QDE) which is determined by energy of photon,
detector thickness, atomic number and density)
18. DETECTOR EFFICIENCY
The probability of detector efficiency varies from 0 to 1
It increases when the source is closer to the detector
It is 0.5 for a point source placed under a flat surface
detector
It is 1 for well type detector system
19. RADIATION DETECTORS
Classified as based on their detection mode
1. GAS FILLED DETECTORS
2. SCINTILLATION DETECTORS
3. SEMICONDUCTOR DETECTORS
20. GAS FILLED DETECTORS
These detectors has volume of gas between two
electrodes in which voltage is applied
When exposed to radiation, the gas is ionized and ion
pairs are formed
Positive ions move towards negative electrode and
negative ions move towards positive electrode
The electron travels through the circuit and reaches
cathode and recombines with positive ions. This forms
an electric current
21. TYPES OF GAS FILLED DETECTORS
Three types based on applied voltage
1. IONIZATION CHAMBERS
2. PROPORTIONAL COUNTER
3. GEIGER MULLER COUNTER
22.
23. IONIZATION CHAMBER
It consists of an outer cylinder coated inside with
graphite and central electrode
They are used in current mode
They are used as survey meters and dosimeters in
radiotherapy
High atomic number gases Argon (Z=18) or
xenon(Z=54) can be used to increase sensitivity
towards x and gamma rays. Used in isotope calibrator
and CT scans
24.
25. IONIZATION CHAMBER
ADVANTAGES
1. Walls can be made tissue equivalent
2. All types of radiation can be measured
3. Can be calibrated to any energy
DISADVANTAGES
Small signal current which require high amplification
and has restricted sensitivity
26. PROPORTIONAL COUNTER
Are designated with specific gas medium, operated
with higher voltages.
In general, Nitrogen and Argon are used
Krypton and Xenon are used at higher energies with
higher efficiencies
The higher electric field accelerates the electrons to
high kinetic energy, producing secondary ionization
They provide large surface area and serve as detector in
CT scans
27. GEIGER COUNTER
The Geiger Muller(GM) counter consists of a
cylindrical cathode with a fine wire anode along its
axis
It has high efficiency for charged particles and record
every particle seperately
They are inefficient towards X rays and Gamma rays
Voltage pulse size is independent of radiation energy
eg: 1Kev and 5Kev radiation give same pulse size.
Hence they cannot be used as spectrometers and dose
rate meters
28.
29. SCINTILLATION DETECTOR
It emits visible or ultraviolet light when exposed to
radiation
However, signal needs to be amplified, hence all
scintillation crystals are provided with photomultiplier
tubes
Scintillation material includes organic compounds and
inorganic crystals
They have higher average atomic number and higher
density and widely used in radiology
30. SCINTILLATION DETECTOR
CONSISTS of
1. LUMINISCENT MATERIAL
2. OPTICAL DEVICE TO FACILITATE THE
COLLECTION OF LIGHT
3. OPTICAL COUPLING BETWEEN THE
LUMINISCENT MATERIAL AND THE
PHOTOMULTIPLIER
4. PHOTOMULTIPLIER TUBE
5. ELECTRICAL CIRCUIT TO RECORD THE PULSE
APPEARING AT THE OUTPUT OF THE
PHOTOMULTIPLIER TUBE
31.
32. SCINTILLATION DETECTOR
When a photon interacts with the crystal, electrons are
raised to excited state. The excited electrons return
back to low energy with the emission of visible and UV
light. This is called luminiscence
Operated at pulse mode and the electronic circuit can
identify individual interactions
Commonly used in gamma cameras and CT scanners
33. RADIOLOGICAL SCINTILLATOR
Sodium iodide(NaI) is used in all nuclear medice
applications
It is used in gamma camera, thyroid probe and gamma
well counter under pulse mode operation
It has high density (Iodine Z=53) and provides high
photoelectric absorption probability for X and Gamma
rays
34. RADIOLOGICAL SCINTILLATOR
Bismuth germinate is used as detector in PET
scanners (Bismuth Z=83)
Cesium iodide with Thallium activator is used in thin
film transister technology in digital radiography
In CT scans, scintillator coupled with photodiodes are
used
High resolution CT scans require crystals with less
after glow. Cadmium tungstate and Gadolinium
ceramics are commonly employed as scintillators
35. PHOTOMULTIPLIER TUBE
It converts visible and UV light in to an electric signal
and does signal amplification of order of millions
It mainly consists of an evacuated glass tube
containing and 10 to 12 dynodes and an anode
The electron emitted by the photocathode falls on first
dynode and gets accelerated.
36. Additional electrons ( 5 electrons per one incident
electron) are produced in the dynode and similar
process continues in the second dynode and so on.
The total amplication is about 10^5 for a 10 minute
dynode pmt system
37.
38. PHOTO DIODE
It is a semiconductor device that converts light in to
electrical signal
When it is exposed to light, an electrical current is
generated that is proportional to amount of incident
light
Photodiodes with CdWO4 is used in CT scan as
detector and also used in digital radiography with thin
film transisters
They are smaller in size and cheaper
39. THERMOLUMINISCENT DOSIMETER
Organic scintillators used in personal monitoring and
patient dose estimation
Amount of light emitted is proportional to the amount
of energy absorbed by TL material
The peak light intensity is proportional to the
radiation dose received
Measurement of peak light intensity forms the basis
for thermoluminescent dosimetry(TLD)
40. THERMOLUMINISCENT DOSIMETER
Lithium fluoride is a useful TLD material with little
fading. Its effective atomic number is close to that of
tissue
Available in the form of powder,rods,discs or chips made
of Teflon(PTFE) impregnated with lithium fluoride
It can be worn by a person or inserted in to a body cavity
or pasted on a equipment
Heating and measurement of peak light intensity done
in a special device called TLD reader after radiation
exposure
41. PHOTOSTIMULABLE PHOSPHORS
These are Scintillators used in imaging plate
technology
When exposed to radiation, fraction of excited
electrons is trapped as absorbed energy
These electrons are released by scanning the plate by
lazer beam (700 nm)
The laser light stimulates the trapped electrons and
release visible light
42.
43. PHOTOSTIMULABLE PHOSPHORS
The light may be collected by means of fiberoptic
guide tube and passed on a photomultiplier tube. The
PMT produces an electronic signal.
This is the used in computed tomography
Phosphors such as GD2O2S & BaFBr & BaFI can be
used as photostimulable phosphors in CR
The imaging plate can be reused by erasing the entire
trapped electrons
44. SEMICONDUCTOR DETECTORS
A semiconductor diode with reverse bias voltage supply
can be used to detect visible and UV light
When the diode is exposed to light photons, the low
energy electrons (valence bond) are excited in the
depletion region and raised to higher energy state(
conduction band)
The hole move towards the p-type semiconductor and
electron move towards n-type semiconductor
This produces a momentary current flow in the circuit
and forms the voltage signal
45. SEMICONDUCTOR DETECTORS
The amount of energy required is 3ev to create a
electron hole pair compared to that of 34ev in ion
chambers
The voltage pulse is larger than ion chamber and the
pulse raise time is shorter, since the electron hole
moves rapidly. Hence they can be used in
spectrometers
The intrinsic noise is higher due to semiconductor
resistance and thermal energy produced
46. SEMICONDUCTOR DETECTORS
Silicon based P-N junction diode reduce noise
significantly than germanium at room temperature
The pulse is narrower than ion chambers and hence
energy resolution is better compared to ion chambers
and scintillation detectors
These are used in kvp meter, digital pocket
meter(silicon), gamma ray spectrometry
They can be used as photodetectors in flat panel
detectors
47. PRACTICAL DOSIMETERS
FREE AIR IONIZATION CHAMBER
The whole chamber is provided with lead lining to
prevent the entry of external radiation in to chamber
The beam size is controlled by diaphragm D
The ionization is measured for a length L of the
collector plate C
The lines are made straight & perpendicular to the
collector by a guard ring G
48.
49. Temperature and pressure
correlation
The response of ion chamber is affected by air
temperature and pressure, since the density of air
depends on temperature and pressure
The density or mass of air in the chamber volume will
increase as the temperature decreases or pressure
increases.
As a result, the chamber reading for a given exposure
will increase
The chambers are usually calibrated under standard
atmospheric conditions (760 mm hg, 22C)
50. THIMBLE IONIZATION CHAMBER
It is basically an ionization chamber with small volume
of air
Generally bakelite or plastic are used as wall material
The inner surface of the wall is coated by a conducting
material like graphite
The graphite acts as an outer electrode and participates
in charge collection
The central cathode is made up of thin aluminium
51. When radiation passes through the chamber, ion pairs
are produced in the air cavity as well as the walls of the
chamber
These ion pairs are collected by the electrodes and it is
measured in terms of ionization charge Q
It is very small in size and very much suitable for
routine measurements in hospitals, for calibrating X-
ray, telecobalt units and linear accelerators
They needs to be calibrated once in 3 yrs
52.
53. POCKET DOSIMETER
It is an ion chamber with a quartz fiber suspended
with in an air filled chamber on a wire frame
The movement of quartz fiber is proportional to
radiation exposure, which is measured in Roentgen
The dosimeter are available in different ranges 0-
200mR, 0-500mR, 0-5R, 0-20R, 0-200R, 0-600R for
measurement of X & gamma rays
For personal monitoring, smallest range (0-200mR)
should be used
54. POCKET DOSIMETER
The main advantage of lies in its ability to provide
instant on the spot check of radiation dose received by
the personnal
Film and TLD will not show accumulated exposure
immediately
This is very useful in non routine work in which
radiation levels vary considerably & may be quite
hazardous eg: cardiac catheterization laboratory
Small in size and easy to use & do not provide
permanent record
55. POCKET DOSIMETERS
Now a days, this are avaiable with easy display of
instant radiation measurements
Presently, semiconductor diode based pocket
dosimeters digital display are also available
They have good energy & polar response, with reliable
readings, matching to TLD badges. This make loud
beep sounds for every 15 to 30 min.
The sound becomes more frequent as dose rate
increases and becomes continuous sound at high
radiation fields
56.
57. DOSE-AREA PRODUCT METER
It is a flat radiolucent air chamber, fitted over the
collimater of the X-ray unit.
Since air is used as medium, the attenuation is very
little
It measures air dose and radiation field area
It indicates how much patient area is exposed with a
given radiation dose. So that assessment of radiation
hazards and associated biological effect is made easy
58. DOSE-AREA PRODUCT METER
It is used in fluoroscopic (angiogram) or cardiac
catheterization laboratory examinations, where the
procedure is long
It is also useful in pediatric imaging to assess pt dose
It is also called as Roentgen-area product (RAP) meter
59. AREA MONITORING
The assessment of radiation levels at different
locations in the vicinity of radiation installation is
known as area monitoring or radiation survey
The objective is to ensure radiation safety and
minimize personal exposure
An ideal monitor should have uniform response to X
and gamma radiation over the range of 15KeV to 3meV
60. Instruments used for area monitoring are called
radiation survey meters or area monitors
Any survey meter consist of two main parts
1) device which detect the radiation
2) display system to measure radiation
61. The different types of meters used
1. Ionization type
2. Geiger muller type
3. Scintillation detector type
62. IONIZATION CHAMBER SURVEY
METER
They are used to measure X-ray machine outputs,
estimate radiation levels in brachytherapy, in
monitoring radionucleide therapy pt and survey the
radioactive material packages
They are capable of monitoring higher radiation
exposure rate levels and used in different ranges
63. GM TYPE SURVEY METER
Very sensitive and useful for monitoring of low level
radiation
The electronic circuit of GM is very simple and less
costly
They are pulsed in nature. They should be used in X
ray units, that emits continuous X rays. Not used in X
ray units that emits pulsed X ray units(linear
accelerators)
64. GM TYPE SURVEY METER
Used in nuclear medicine and suitable for radioactive
contamination & low level radiation survey
They have long dead time (100 msec) and result in
20% loss. Hence ionization chamber survey meters are
preferred for accurate radiation survey
65.
66. PERSONAL MONITORING SYSTEMS
1) To monitor and control individual doses regularly
2) Report and investigate overexposures and
recommend remedial measures urgently
3) Maintain lifetime cumulative dose records of the
users of service
68. PERSONAL MONITORING DEVICES
These devices provide
1) Occupational absorbed dose information
2) Assurance that dose limits are not exceeded
3) Trends in exposure to serve as check in working place
In India, country wide personal monitoring service is
offered by private agencies, accredited by BARC,
mumbai
69. Film badge has some disadvantages such as
-fading at high temperature and humidity
-high sensitivity to light, pressure and chemicals,
-complex dark room procedure and limited self life
Hence, TLD badges are currently used in india instead
of film badges
70. THERMOLUMINISCENT DOSIMETER
It is based on the phenomenon of
thermoluminiscence, the emission of light when
certain materials are heated after radiation exposure
It is used to measure individual doses from X, beta and
gamma radiations
It gives very reliable results since no fading is observed
under extreme climatic conditions
71. THERMOLUMINISCENT DOSIMETER
The typical TLD badge consists of a plastic casette in
which nickel coated aluminium card is placed
There are three filters in the cassette corresponding to
each disk namely Cu+AI, perspex and open
The metallic filter is meant for gamma radiation,
perspex is for beta radiation
72. THERMOLUMINISCENT DOSIMETER
When the TLD is exposed to radiation, the electrons in
the crystal lattice are excited more from the valence
band to conduction band.
They form a trap just below the conduction band
The number of electrons in the trap are proportional
to radiation exposure and thus it stores the absorbed
radiation energy in the crystal lattice
73.
74. TLD READER
After radiation exposure, the dose measurements are
made by using a TLD reader.
It has heater, photo multiplier tube(PMT), amplifier and
a recorder
The TLD is placed in the heater cup, where it is heated.
While heating, electrons return to their ground state
with emission of light
This emitted light is measured by the PMT, which
converts light in to electrical current
The PMT signal is the amplified & measured by a
recorder
75.
76. The disks are reusable after proper annealing up to 300
times
The annealing process release the residual energy
stored from earlier exposure
A typical annealing cycle consists of 400 degree
Celsius for 1hr followed by 300 degree celsius for 3 hrs
77. GUIDELINES FOR USING TLD BADGE
1. Worn at chest level, that is expected to receive
maximum radiation exposure
2.Used only by persons directly working in radiation
3.Pregnant radiation workers should wear a second badge
at waist level ( under lead apron) to assess radiation dose
4.The name, personal number, type of radiation, period of
use, location on the body etc should be written legibily in
block letters on the front side of badge
78. 5. A TLD badge once issued to a person should not be
used by another person
6. Each institution must keep one TLD card loaded in
TLD holder as control which is required for correct
dose estimation
7. If lead apron is used, TLD badge should be worn
under lead apron
8. while leaving the premises of the institute, the
workers should deposit their badges in the place where
control TLD is kept