1. Management and Leadership
To manage means to bring about, to accomplish, to have charge of or responsibility for, to conduct. Management is
the process of deciding what to do and then getting it done through the effective use of resources. It is about what
managers do to make things happen. They define goals, determine the resources - people, finance, work systems and
technology - required to achieve the goals, allocate those resources to opportunities and planned activities and
ensure that those activities take place as planned in order to achieve predetermined objectives.
To lead is to inspire, influence and guide. Leadership is the process of getting people to do their best to achieve a
desired result. It involves developing and communicating a vision for the future, motivating people and gaining their
engagement.
In his role as a demonizer of managers, Bennis (1989) identified 12 invidious distinctions between managers and
leaders:
1. Managers administer, leaders innovate.
2. Managers ask how and when, leaders ask what and why.
3. Managers focus on systems, leaders focus on people.
4. Managers do things right, leaders do the right things.
5. Managers maintain, leaders develop.
6. Managers rely on control, leaders inspire trust.
7. Managers have a short-term perspective, leaders have a longer-term perspective.
8. Managers accept the status quo, leaders challenge the status quo.
9. Managers have an eye on the bottom line, leaders have an eye on the horizon.
10. Managers imitate, leaders originate.
11. Managers emulate the classic good soldier, leaders are their own person.
12. Managers copy, leaders show originality.
More positive distinctions between management and leadership were made by Kotter (1991),
Management involves Leadership involves
Focusing on managing complexity by
planning and budgeting with the aim of
producing orderly results, not change.
Focusing on producing change by developing a vision
for the future along with strategies for bringing about
the changes needed to achieve that vision.
Developing the capacity to achieve
plans by creating an organization
structure and staffing it - developing
human systems that can implement
plans as precisely and efficiently as
possible.
Aligning people by communicating the new direction
and creating coalitions that understand the vision and
are committed to its achievement.
Ensuring plan accomplishment by
controlling and problem-solving -
formally and informally comparing
results to the plan, identifying
deviations and then planning and
organizing to solve the problems.
Using motivation to energize people, not by pushing
them in the right direction as control mechanisms do,
but by satisfying basic human needs for achievement, a
sense of belonging, recognition, self-esteem, a feeling
of control over one's life and the ability to live up to
one's ideals.
Conclusions
The answer to the issues raised by these various comparisons is that management and leadership are indeed
different. Management is concerned with the effective use of all resources,
including people, while leadership concentrates on getting the best out of people. However, both are needed. As

2. Mintzberg (2004) commented, 'instead of isolating leadership we need to
diffuse it throughout the organization... It's time to bring management and leadership down to earth'.
Management standards
What managers do can be defined in terms of the standards they are expected to achieve. The following
management standards have been produced by the Management Standards Centre (2004).
Providing direction
 Develop a vision for the future.
 Gain commitment and provide leadership.
 Provide governance - comply with values, ethical and legal frameworks and manage risks in line with shared
goals.
Facilitating change
 Lead innovations.
 Manage change.
Achieving results
 Lead the business to achieve goals and objectives.
 Lead operations to achieve specific results.
 Lead projects to achieve specified results.
Meeting customer needs
 Promote products and/or services to customers.
 Obtain contracts to supply products and/or services.
 Deliver products and/or services to customers.
 Solve problems for customers.
 Assure the quality of products and/or services.
Working with people
 Build relationships.
 Develop networks and partnerships.
 Manage people.
Using resources
 Manage financial resources.

3.  Procure products and/or services.
 Manage physical resources and technology.
 Manage information and knowledge.
Managing self and personal skills
 Manage own contribution.
 Develop own knowledge, skills and competence.
Henry Mintzberg (1973) observed five chief executives over a period of five weeks. He found that the proportion of
time they spent on different activities was as shown in table below.
Activities Average (%) Range (%)
Desk work 22 16-38
Telephone calls 6 4-9
Scheduled meetings 59 38-75
Unscheduled meetings 10 3-8
Tours 3 0-10
Proportion of activities lasting less than 9 minutes 49 40-56
Proportion of activities lasting longer than 60 minutes 10 5-13
What is an effective manager?
Managerial effectiveness 'denotes the extent to which what managers actually do matches what they are supposed to
do' (Hales, 1986). It is about performance, which refers both to what people do (their achievements) and how people
do it (their behaviour). To measure effectiveness it is necessary to understand and de? ne both sides of the equation;
that is, inputs (skills and behaviour) and outputs (results). The measurement of effectiveness and performance
therefore compares expectations about achievements and behaviour with actual results and behaviour. Effective
managers:
 get the things done that they are expected to get done;
 exercise visionary leadership;
 understand the business and its key drivers and act accordingly;
 plan the effective use of the resources allocated to them;
 set the direction and ensure that everyone knows what is expected of them;
 initiate and manage change designed to improve performance;
 adapt and respond rapidly to changing demands and circumstances;
 anticipate problems but deal promptly with those that arise unexpectedly; and
 monitor performance so that swift corrective action can be taken when necessary.
Managerial skills
To meet these onerous demands managers require a wide range of skills. These include coaching, communicating,

4. delegating, facilitating, leadership, measuring and managing performance, motivating, networking, problem-solving
and decision-making, and providing feedback.
Tamkin et al (2003) suggest that managers need the ability to:
 empower and develop people - understand and practise the process of delivering through the capability of
others;
 manage people and performance - maintain morale while also maximizing performance;
 work across boundaries, engaging with others, working as a member of a team, thinking differently about
problems and their solutions;
 develop relationships and a focus on the customer, building partnerships with both internal and external
customers;
 Balance technical and generic skills - the technical aspects of management and the management of human
relationships.
Managerial competencies
Managerial competencies are the behaviors that will produce effective performance. They refer to characteristics
of managers in such areas as leadership, team working and communication. They are defined in the competency
frameworks and profiles that many organizations use to inform decisions on selection, learning and development
and, sometimes, increases in pay. They can be used as criteria for assessing performance. A competency framework
or profile also provides guidance to managers on the sort of behavior expected of them. The following is an example
of a competency framework.
 Achievement orientation: The desire to get things done well and the ability to set and meet challenging
goals, create own measures of excellence and constantly seek ways of improving performance.
 Business awareness: The capacity to continually identify and explore business opportunities, to understand
the business priorities of the organization and constantly seek methods of ensuring that the organization
becomes more businesslike.
 Communication: The ability to communicate clearly and persuasively, orally or in writing.
 Customer focus: The exercise of unceasing care in looking after the interests of external and internal
customers to ensure that their wants, needs and expectations are met or exceeded.
 Developing others: The desire and capacity to foster the development of members of their team, providing
feedback, support, encouragement and coaching.
 Flexibility: The ability to adapt to and work effectively in different situations and to carry out a variety of
tasks.
 Leadership: The capacity to inspire individuals to give of their best to achieve a desired result and to
maintain effective relationships with individuals and the team as a whole.
 Planning: The ability to decide on courses of action, ensuring that the resources required implementing the
action will be available, and schedule the program of work required to achieve a defined end result.
 Problem-solving: The capacity to analyze situations, diagnose problems, identify the key issues, establish
and evaluate alternative courses of action, and produce a logical, practical and acceptable solution.

5.  Teamwork: The ability to work cooperatively and flexibly with other members of the team, with a full
understanding of the role to be played as a team member.
Some organizations illustrate their competency frameworks with examples of positive or negative indicators of
behavior under each heading. These provide a useful checklist for managers willing to measure their own
Performance in order to develop their career. Here is an extract (Table) from a framework used by a large housing
association.
Positive and negative indicators of performance
Positive indicators
carries out work as required completes work on time meets quality/service standards works accurately sees things
through asks for ground rules committed to achieving high-quality results shows commitment to make it happen
seeks to raise quality standards puts measures in place actions match words takes ownership of things to be done
evaluates and revises deadlines as necessary takes responsibility for outcomes always has a follow-up course of
action makes contingency plans does everything within their means to ensure that things get done to the best of their
ability confronts issues
Negative indicators
frequently forgets things has to be chased to meet deadlines not concerned with quality does not learn from
mistakes does not follow instructions often late in delivering expected results work not up to standard makes too
many mistakes does minimum they can get away with relies on others to complete actions no pride in the job blames
others for personal failure conceals situations when things go wrong focuses on less important activities
builds achievements to be greater than they are agrees unrealistic deadlines prioritizes badly.
What is a leader?
Leaders get things done through people. They set the direction and get other people to follow them. As Ted Johns
(2008) says: 'A leader takes people where they want to go. A great leader takes people where they donít necessarily
want to be, but ought to be.'
Types of leaders
Leaders have been classified into a number of different types as described below.
Transactional leader
Transactional leaders, as originally described by Burns (1978), identify the expectations of their followers and
respond to them by establishing a close link between effort and reward. Power is given to the leader to evaluate,
correct and train subordinates when performance needs to be improved and to reward effectiveness when the
required outcomes are achieved.

6. Transformational leader
Transformational leaders, as de? Ned by Bass (1985), empower their followers and encourage them to 'do more than
they originally expected to do'. Transformational leaders motivate followers to perform at higher levels, to exert
greater effort, and to show more commitment. Bass identified three principal leadership processes for achieving
such outcomes: (1) heightening followers' awareness about the importance and value of designated goals and the
means to achieve them; (2) inducing followers to transcend their self-interests for the good of the group and its
goals; and (3) meeting followersí higher-order needs. Transformational leaders provide encouragement and support
to followers, assist their development by promoting growth opportunities, and show trust and respect for them as
individuals. They build self-confidence and heighten personal development.
Charismatic leaders
Charismatic leaders have compelling personalities and the ability to rouse people to follow them through the sheer
force of the impression they make. As originally described by Weber (1947), charismatic leaders are achievement
orientated, calculated risk-takers and good communicators. They achieve motivational outcomes through four
mechanisms: (1) changing follower perceptions of the nature of work itself; (2) offering an appealing future vision;
(3) developing a deep collective identity among followers; and (4) heightening both individual and collective self-efficacy
(people's belief in themselves and what they can do). There is a strong affinity between the charismatic and
the transformational leader.
Situational leaders
As originally described by Hersey and Blanchard (1969), a situational leader is one who can adopt different
leadership styles depending on the situation. The behavior of leaders towards their followers can take the following
forms:
Directing leaders define the roles and tasks of their followers, and supervise them closely. Decisions are made and
announced by the leader, so communication is largely one-way.
Delegating leaders are still involved in decisions and problem-solving, but control is with the follower. The follower
decides when and how the leader will be involved.
Coaching leaders still define roles and tasks, but seek ideas and suggestions from the followers. Decisions remain
the leader’s prerogative, but communication is much more two-way.
Supporting leaders pass day-to-day decisions, such as task allocation and processes, to followers. Leaders facilitate
and take part in decisions, but control is with the follower.
Effective leaders are versatile in being able to move between the styles according to the situation, so there is no one
right style. However, people tend to have a preferred style and should
understand what that is.
What do leaders do?
Leaders have three essential roles. They have to:

7. 1. Define the task - they must make it clear what the group is expected to do.
2. Achieve the task - that is why the group exists. Leaders ensure that the group's purpose is fulfilled. If it is not, the
result is frustration, disharmony, criticism and perhaps eventually
disintegration of the group.
3. Maintain effective relationships - between themselves and the members of the group, and between the people
within the group. These relationships are effective if they contribute to
achieving the task. They can be divided into those concerned with the team and its morale and sense of common
purpose, and those concerned with individuals and how they are motivated.
John Adair (1973), the leading British expert on leadership, explained that these demands are best expressed as three
areas of need that leaders are there to satisfy. These are: (1) task needs - to get the job done; (2) individual needs -
to harmonize the needs of the individual with the needs of the task and the group; and (3) group maintenance
needs - to build and maintain team spirit. As shown in Figure, he models these demands as three interlocking
circles.
John Adair Model
John Adair Model
This model suggests that the task, individual and group needs are interdependent. Satisfying task needs will also
satisfy group and individual needs. Task needs, however, cannot be satisfied unless attention is paid to individual
and group needs, and looking after individual needs will also contribute to satisfying group needs and vice versa.
There is a danger in becoming so task orientated that individual and group or team needs are ignored, and it is just as
dangerous to be too people orientated, focusing on meeting individual or group needs at the expense of the task. The
best leaders are those who keep these three needs satisfied and in balance according to the demands of the situation.
What makes a good leader?
There is no universal answer to this question but recent thinking about leadership has indicated that good leaders are
con? Dent and know where they want to go and what they want to do. They have the ability to take charge, convey
their vision to their team, get their team members into action and ensure that they achieve their agreed goals. They
are trustworthy, effective at influencing people and earn the respect of their team. They are aware of their own
strengths and weaknesses and are skilled at understanding the needs, attitudes and perspective of team members.
They appreciate the advantages of consulting and involving people in decision-making. They can switch flexibly
from one leadership style to another to meet the demands of different situations and people.
Many lists and explanations of the qualities required by leaders have been produced, which complement or enhance
the definition of a good leader given above. Here are a few of the better known ones.

8. John Adair
John Adair (1973) listed the following qualities that good leaders possess:
 enthusiasm - to get things done, which they can communicate to other people;
 confidence - belief in themselves, which again people can sense (but this must not be over-confidence, which
leads to arrogance);
 toughness - resilient, tenacious and demanding high standards, seeking respect but not necessarily
popularity;
 integrity - being true to oneself ñ personal wholeness, soundness and honesty, which inspires trust;
 warmth - in personal relationships, caring for people and being considerate;
 Humility - willingness to listen and take the blame, not being arrogant and overbearing.
Leadership competencies
It was argued by Bennis and Thomas (2002) that the competencies of leaders (ie their skills, attributes and
behaviours) are outcomes of their formative experiences. The key competencies are adaptive capacity, an ability to
engage others in shared meanings, a compelling voice and integrity. They claimed that one of the most reliable
indicators and predictors of 'true leadership' is an individual's ability to find meaning in negative situations and to
learn from trying circumstances.
The Industrial Society
An extensive survey conducted by the Industrial Society, now the Work Foundation (1997), revealed that what good
leaders do is to make the right space for people to perform well without having to be watched over. The top 10
requirements for leader behavior as ranked by respondents were:
1. Shows enthusiasm.
2. Supports other people.
3. Recognizes individual effort.
4. Listens to individuals’ ideas and problems.
5. Provides direction.
6. Demonstrates personal integrity.
7. Practices what they preach.
8. Encourages teamwork.
9. Actively encourages feedback.
10. Develops other people.
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