Research methodology By Hafiz Muzzammel Rehman

1. HAFIZ
MUZZAMMEL
BZU, Lahore
Campus

2.  RESEARCH
The systematic investigation and study of
materials & sources in order to establish facts and
reach new conclusions
 METHODOLOGY
A system of methods used in a particular area of
study or activity

3. Basic Elements of the Research
 Empiricism: the notion that enquiry is conducted
through observation and knowledge verified through
evidences.
 Determinism: the notion that events occur according
to regular laws and causes. The goal of research is
to discover these.
 Skepticism: the notion that any proposal is open to
analysis and criticism.

4. Research Definition
 Clarke and Clarke: Research is a careful, systematic
and objective investigation conducted to obtain valid
facts, draw conclusions and established principles
regarding an identifiable problem in some field of
knowledge.
 John .W. Best: Research is a systematic and
objective analysis and recording of controlled
observations that may lead to the development of
generalizations, principles, theories and concepts,
resulting in prediction for seeing and possibly ultimate
control of events.
 Clifford woody: Research is a careful enquiry or
examination in seeking facts or principles, a diligent
investigation to ascertain something.
 Mouley: It is the process of arriving at dependable
solution to the problems through the planned and
systematic collection, analysis and interpretation of

5. Knowledge acquisition gained
through reasoning
through intuition
but most importantly through the use of
appropriate methods…..
Research is …….
The Scientific Method

6. Research Methodology Cycle
oAnalysis of results
oControl and samples
oScientific record
keeping
oDevelopment of a
research project
oWriting research grant
application
oDesigning and
investigation
oOwnership of data
oWriting, presentation
oPublishing the scientific
papers
oFilling patent application
oUse of microorganisms,
animals, plants and humans in
experiments
oUse of pathogens in
oNature of scientific
inquiry
oChoosing a research
project

7. We all see
the world
differently.
?
C
A
B
Truth non
truth
Beliefs
Biases
Perceptions

8. Scientists over the centuries found they faced
the same problem when it came to sorting out
the truth from non truths.
To solve the problem, they devised a
methodical framework within which to work.
This framework is called the scientific method,
and it's extremely important to solve a
problem.

9. A scientist often credited with
being the first to employ the
scientific method is Francesco
Redi (1626 -1697), an Italian
physician.

10. Key Steps of Scientific Research
•Identify a problem
•Research the problem
•Formulate a hypothesis
•Conduct an experiment
•Reach a conclusion

11. So you get some new
batteries and replace the
ones in your pen torch.
Problem ??? pen torch doesn't
work.
You think back to the last time
your pen torch didn't work, and
you remember that it was
because of worn-out batteries.
You guess that worn-out
batteries is the reason this
time as well.
Oh! pen torch works.
finished the great book !

12. Reach a conclusion.Oh! Your pen torch works.
you're faced with the problem
of not being able to read
because your pen torch
doesn't work, and you're not
happy about it.
Identify a problem.
You think back to the last
time your pen torch didn't
work, and you remember
that it was because of worn-
out batteries.
Research the problem.
Formulate a hypothesis.You guess that worn-out
batteries is the reason your
pen torch isn't working
now, so you get some new
batteries from the drawer
next to your bed and
replace the ones in your pen
torch.
Conduct an experiment.

13. Newton
“Disappointment
is
when a
beautiful
hypothesis
is destroyed by
an ugly fact.”

14. Steps in Research Methodology
 Choose a question to
investigate
 Identify a hypothesis
related to the question
 Make testable predictions
in the hypothesis
 Design an experiment to
answer hypothesis
question
 Collect data in experiment
 Determine results and
assess their validity
 Determine if results
support or refute your

15. 1. Suspicion that a factor (exposure)
may influence occurrence of
disease
- Observations in clinical practice
- Examination of disease patterns
- Do subpopulations have higher or lower rates?
- Are disease rates increased in the presence of certain
factors?
- Observations in laboratory research
- Theoretical speculation
Scientific Research Methodology

16. Basic Question in Research
Are exposure and disease linked?
Exposure Disease
Is there an association between them?

17. 2. Identify variables you are interested in:
• Exposure - (risk factor, protective factor,
predictor variable, treatment)
• Outcome - (disease, event)
3. Formulate a specific hypothesis
- Frame a hypothesis which seeks to
answer a specific question about the
relationship between an exposure and
disease
Scientific Research Methodology

18. Hypothesis
An educated proposal to explain certain
facts; a tentative explanation for an
observation, phenomenon, or scientific
problem that can be tested by further
investigation
Hypothesis is a Hope for Thesis !!

19. Statistical Association
The degree to which the rate of disease
in persons with a specific exposure
is either higher or lower
than the rate of disease
among those without that exposure

20. The Scientific Method
Assess validity of association
- Does the observed association really
exist?
- Is the association valid?
- Are there alternative explanations for the
association?
- Chance
- Bias
- Confounding

21. Hypothesis
Shape and guide a research study
in terms of:
• identification of study sample
size
• what issues should be
involved in data collection
• the proper analysis of the data
• data interpretation

22. Hypothesis Formulation
Formulate a hypothesis
Frame the hypothesis in
a format that is testable
Test the hypothesis

23. Hypothesis Formulation
 Observations from:
Literature (review PubMed on topic
area)
Natural experiments
Multi-national comparisons
Descriptive studies Creativity

24. CervicalCancer

25. • Infectious and chronic diseases
show great variation from one
country to another.
• Some differences may be attributed
to:
--- Climate
--- Cultural factors
--- Diet
--- Genetics

26. Case Series Approach
 Identify the experience of a group of
patients with a similar diagnosis, or
 Identify the experience of a group of
individuals with an exposure in
common
 Patients or individuals may be identified
from a single or multiple sources

27. Population Survey Approach
 Describe issues related to disease or
exposure in populations
 Usually rely upon routinely collected
data from established surveillance
disease systems
Unique Component: usually identify the
characteristics of an issue from a
representative sample of the population

28. Three essential characteristics in
descriptive studies are...
Person
Place
Time

29. Person
Since disease does not occur at
random:
What kinds of people tend to
develop a particular disease, and
who tends to be spared? What’s
unusual about those people?
29

30. Person Factors
 Age, gender, race,
ethnicity
 Genetic predisposition
 Concurrent disease
 Diet, exercise, smoking
 Risk taking behavior
 Education, occupation
30

31. Place
Since disease does not occur at
random:
Where is the disease especially
common or rare, and what is different
about those places?

32. Place Factors
 Geographic place
 residence
 occupation
 climate
 Geology
 population density
 economic development
 nutritional practices
 medical practices

33. Time
Since disease does not occur at
random:
How does disease frequency change
over time, and what other factors are
temporally associated with those
changes?

34. Time Factors
 Calendar Time / Time of Day
 Time since an event
 Date of onset
 Age (time since birth in the
young)
 Seasonality
 Temporal trends

35. Remember the Elements of the
Scientific Method
Discoveries or hypotheses are
sometimes resisted because they seem
counter- intuitive

36. Hypothesis Framing
Traditionally…..
H0: “Null” hypothesis (assumed)
H1: “Alternative” hypothesis

37. H0: There is no association between the
exposure and disease of interest
H1: There is an association between the
exposure and disease of interest
(beyond what might be expected
from random error alone)
Hypothesis Framing

38. Another Type of Framing:
What is the best estimate of the risk of
disease in those who are exposed
compared to those who are unexposed (i.e.
exposed are at XX times higher risk of
disease).
This moves away from the simple yes or no
for an exposure/disease association – to
the estimated magnitude of effect
irrespective of whether it differs from the
Hypothesis Framing

39. 1. Suggest possible events…
The rate of survival will increase a
Ways to Express Hypothesis:

40. 2. Suggest relationship between
specific exposure and health-
related event…
A high cholesterol intake is
associated with the development
(risk) of coronary heart disease.
Ways to Express Hypothesis

41. 3. Suggest cause-effect relationship….
Cigarette smoking is a cause of
lung cancer
Ways to Express Hypothesis

42. 4. “One-sided” vs. “Two-sided”
One-sided example:
Helicobacter pylori infection is associated
with increased risk of stomach ulcer
Two-sided example:
Weight-lifting is associated with risk of
lower back injury
Ways to Express Hypothesis

43. Guidelines for Framing Hypotheses:
1. State the exposure to be measured
as specifically as possible.
2. State the health outcome as
specifically as possible.
Strive to explain the smallest
amount of ignorance
Hypothesis Framing

44. Example Hypotheses:
POOR
Eating junk food is associated with
the development of cancer
GOOD
The human papilloma virus (HPV)
subtype 16 is associated with the
development of cancer
Hypothesis Framing

45. The Next Step - Experimental
Testing
 Once the hypothesis has been established, it
is time to test it. The process of
experimentation is what sets science apart
from other disciplines, and it leads to
discoveries every day.
 An experiment is designed to prove or
disprove the hypothesis. If your prediction is
correct, you will not be able to reject the
hypothesis.

46. Experimental Testing
 Formally test the identified hypothesis
in a research study
 The study should follow a specific plan
or protocol
 Study designs direct how the
investigation is conducted and allows
for the translation of a conceptual
hypothesis into an operational one
 Include a detailed materials list
 The outcome must be measurable

47. Experimental Testing
 Testing and experimentation can occur in the
;
 Laboratory
 Field
 On the blackboard
 On the computer.
-- Results of testing must be reproducible and
verifiable. The data should be available to
determine if the interpretations are unbiased

48. Experimental Testing
Consider all alternatives
Experiment may not disprove all (but may
disprove only parts) of your hypothesis.
That is still alright to perform.

49. Collect and Analyze Results
All evidence and conclusions must be
analyzed to make sure bias or
inadequate effort did not lead to
incorrect conclusions
• Modify the procedure if needed.
• Confirm the results by retesting.
• Qualitative and quantitative mathematical
analysis.
• Include tables, graphs, and photographs.

50. Conclude Your Research
• Include a statement that accepts or rejects
the hypothesis.
• Make recommendations for further study
and possible improvements to the
procedure.

51. • Be prepared to present the project to
an audience.
• Expect questions from the audience.
• Oral or poster presentation in
scientific meeting
• Filling a Patent
• Publishing article in journal
Communicate the Results

52. Energy Crisis
Envirnomental Problem
Health Issues
Animal and Plant Care
Biotechniques
Stem cell and Tissue
Culture
Class
Activit
y
Write down Hypothesis on any question of your
interest

53. Science Project Topics to Avoid Why
Any topic that boils down to a
simple preference or taste
comparison. For example,
"Which tastes better: Coke or
Pepsi?”
Such experiments don't involve
the kinds of numerical
measurements we want in a
science fair project. They are
more of a survey than an
experiment.
Most consumer product testing
of the "Which is best?" type.
This includes comparisons of
popcorn, bubblegum, make-up,
detergents, cleaning products,
and paper towels.
These projects only have
scientific validity if the
Investigator fully understands
the science behind why the
product works and applies that
understanding to the
experiment. The science
behind them is often at the

54. Science Project Topics to Avoid Why
Effect of colored light on plants
Several people do this project
at almost every science fair.
You can be more creative!
Effect of music or talking on
plants
Difficult to measure.
Effect of running, music, video
games, or almost anything on
blood pressure
The result is either obvious (the
heart beats faster when you
run) or difficult to measure with
proper controls (the effect of
music).
Effect of color on memory,
emotion, mood, taste, strength,
etc.
Highly subjective and difficult to
measure.
Any topic that requires

55. What Makes a Good Science Research Method?
Is the topic interesting enough to read about ?
Can you find at least 3 sources of written information on the subject?
Can you measure changes to the important factors (variables) using a number that
represents a quantity such as a count, percentage, length, width, weight, voltage, velocity,
energy, time, etc.?
Or, just as good, are you measuring a factor (variable) that is simply present or not
present? For example, USE fertilizer in one trial, then DON'T USE fertilizer in another trial.
Can you design a "fair test" to answer your question? In other words, can you change only
one factor (variable) at a time, and control other factors that might influence your
experiment, so that they do not interfere?
Is your experiment safe to perform?
Do you have all the materials and equipment you need for your science project, or will you
be able to obtain them quickly and at a very low cost?
Do you have enough time to do your experiment more than once before the science project
closing date?
For a Good Science Research Method, Answer to Every Question should be
"Yes"