This document provides an overview of stress, including its definition, types, causes, biological mechanisms, effects, and management. It defines stress as the body's reaction to excessive demands or pressures, and notes there are three main types: acute, episodic, and chronic stress. The biological mechanisms of stress involve the hypothalamus-pituitary-adrenal axis activating a stress response through the release of cortisol and other hormones. Prolonged stress can negatively impact physical and mental health. Effective stress management includes identifying stressors, adapting coping strategies, and accepting what cannot be changed.

2. A PRESENTATION ON STRESS

3. CONTENTS
1.INTRODUCTION
2.WHAT IS STRESS
3.AMBIGUITY OF WORD.
4.HOMEOSTASIS
5.STRESS AND MYTH
6. KINDS OF STRESS

4. 7. CAUSES OF STRESS
8. NEUROANATOMY
9. NEUROCHEMISTRY
10. BIOLOGICAL MECHANISM
11. EFFECTS OF STRESS
12.MANAGEMENT

5. INTRODUCTION

6. WHAT IS STRESS?
Stress ,like Einstein s
theory of relativity, is a
scientific concept
Stress is a reaction
people have when
excessive pressure or
demands are placed
S=P>R upon them, and arises
when an individual
believes they are
unable to cope.

8. AMBIGUITY IN WORD.
Stress is a term that is
commonly used today
but has become
•Biology primarily increasingly difficult to
attempts to explain define.
major concepts of
stress in a stimulus-
response manner.
•. It shares, to some extent, common meanings in both the
biological and psychological sciences.

9. BRIEF HISTORY
In the 1920s and 1930s,
the term was
occasionally being used
in biological and
psychological circles to
refer to a mental strain,
unwelcome happening,
or, more medically, a
harmful environmental
agent that could cause

10. HOMEOSTASIS
•Walter Cannon used it in 1926 to refer to
external factors that disrupted what he
called homeostasis
Environmental factors,
internal or external Homeostasis is a
stimuli, continually concept central to the
disrupt homeostasis. idea of stress.
. Factors causing an In biology, most
organism’s condition to biochemical processes
waver away from strive to
homeostasis can be maintain equilibrium, a
interpreted as stress. steady state that exists

12. STRESS –MYTHS
RELATED TO IT
EUSTRESS POSITIVE STRESS
DISTRESS NEGETIVE STRESS

13. EUSTRESS refers to a positive
response one has to a
stressor, which can
depend on one's current
feelings of control,
desirability, location, and
indicators of timing of the stressor.
eustress may
include
responding
to a stressor
with a sense
of meaning,
hope,
or vigor.

14. DISTRESS
Is an aversive state
Persistent stress in which a person is
that is not resolved unable to adapt
through coping or completely
adaptation should to stressors and their
be known as resulting stress and
distress, and may shows maladaptive
lead to anxiety, behaviours.
withdrawal, and
depressive
behaviour.
the most commonly referred to type of stress,
having negative implications.

15. The Yerkes-Dodson
model demonstrates
the optimum balance
of stress with a bell
curve (shown in the
image in the top
right). This model is
supported by research
demonstrating
emotional-coping and
behavioural-coping
strategies are related
to changes in
perceived stress level
on the Yerkes-Dodson
Curve

16. KINDS OF STRESS
ACUTE
EPISODIC
CHRONIC

17. Acute stress is experienced in response to an
immediate perceived threat, either physical,
emotional or psychological.
During an acute stress response,
the autonomic nervous system is activated
and the body experiences increased levels
of cortisol, adrenalin and other hormones
that produce an increased heart rate,
quickened breathing rate, and higher blood
pressure. shunted from the extremities to the
Blood is
big muscles, preparing the body to fight or
run away.

18. Acute stress that is suffered too frequently is
called episodic stress.
Episodic stress is also typically observed in people
with “Type A” personality, which involves being
overly competitive, aggressive, demanding and
sometimes tense and hostile. Because of this, The
symptoms of episodic stress are found in Type A
persons. These include-
Longer periods of intermitted depression, anxiety
disorders and emotional distress
Ceaseless worrying
Persistent physical symptoms similar to those
found in acute stress
Coronary heart diseases, or other heart problems

19. Chronic stress is the total opposite of acute
stress; it’s not exciting and thrilling, but
dangerous and unhealthy.
This type of stress is brought about by long-
term exposure to stressors
Serious illnesses like stroke, heart attack, cancer,
and psychological problems such as clinical
depression and post-traumatic disorder can
originate from chronic stress.

20. Common physical signs and symptoms of chronic stress
are:
dry mouth
difficulty in breathing
pounding heart
stomach ache
headache
diaphoresis
frequent urination
tightening of muscles
Mental signs and symptoms include:
sudden irritability
tension
problems with concentration
difficulty in sleeping
narrowed perception
frequent feelings of fatigue

22. WHAT CAUSES STRESS?

23. Stress can occur in individuals depending on ones
own perception to situations.
However, basically the prior causes causing stress
overall are as follows-
1) Environmental factors
2) Organization factors
3) Individual factors

24. Biological background
The central nervous system (brain and spinal
cord) plays a crucial role in the body’s stress-
related mechanisms.
The central nervous system works closely with
the body’s endocrine system to regulate these
mechanisms.
The sympathetic nervous system, becomes
primarily active during a stress response,
regulating many of the
body’s physiological functions in ways that ought
to make an organism more adaptive to its
environment.

25. NEUROANATOMY

26. Different structures of brain associated with a
stress response are –
HYPOTHALAMUS
1. AMYGDALA
2.
3. HIPPOCAMPUS
4.
5. LOCUS COERULUS
6. RAPHE NUCLEUS
7. SPINAL CORD
8. PITUITARY GLAND
ADRENAL GLAND

28. HYPOTHALAMUS- A small portion of the brain
located "below the thalamus" and above
the brainstem.
Important functions is to help link together the
body’s nervous and endocrine systems.
During a stress response, the hypothalamus
secretes various hormones,
namely corticotrophin-releasing hormone,
which stimulates the body’s pituitary gland and
initiates a heavily regulated stress response
pathway.

29. AMYGDALA- The amygdala is a small,
"almond"-shaped structure located bilaterally,
deep within the medial temporal lobes of the
brain and is a part of the brain’s limbic system.
Thought to play a role in the processing of
emotions, the amygdala has been implicated in
modulating stress response mechanisms,
particularly when feelings of anxiety or fear is
involved.

30. HIPPOCAMPUS-
The hippocampus is a structure located
bilaterally, deep within the medial temporal
lobes of the brain, just lateral to each
amygdala, and is a part of the brain’s limbic
system.
During stress, the hippocampus is
particularly important, in that cognitive
processes such as prior memories can have
a great influence on enhancing,
suppressing, or even independently
generating a stress response.

31. LOCUS COERULUS The locus coeruleus is an
area located in the pons of the brainstem that is
the principal site of the synthesis of
the neurotransmitter norepinephrine, which plays
an important role in the sympathetic nervous
system’s fight-or-flight response to stress.
This area receives input from the hypothalamus,
amygdala, and raphe nucleus among other
regions and projects widely across the brain as
well as to the spinal cord.

32. RAPHE NUCLEUS The raphe nucleus is an area
located in the pons of the brainstem that is
the principal site of the synthesis of
the neurotransmitter serotonin, which plays
an important role in mood regulation,

33. The spinal cord plays a critical role in
transferring stress response neural
impulses from the brain to the rest of the
body. The spinal cord communicates with
the rest of the body by innervating
the peripheral nervous system. Certain
nerves that belong to the sympathetic
branch of the central nervous system exit
the spinal cord and stimulate peripheral
nerves, which in turn engage the body’s
major organs and muscles in a fight-or-
flight manner

34. Pituitary gland
The pituitary gland is a small organ that is
located at the base of of the brain just under the
hypothalamus
This gland releases various hormones that play
significant roles in regulating homeostasis.
During a stress response, the pituitary gland
releases hormones into the blood stream,
namely adrenocorticotropic hormone, which
modulates a heavily regulated stress response
system.

35. Adrenal gland
The adrenal gland is a major organ of the
endocrine system that is located directly on
top of the kidneys and is chiefly responsible
for the synthesis of stress hormones that are
released into the blood stream during a
stress response. Cortisol is the major stress
hormone released by the adrenal gland.

36. NEUROCHEMISTRY

37. Corticotropin-releasing hormone
Cortico tropin-releasing
hormone is the neuro
hormone secreted by the
hypothalamus during a stress
response that stimulates the
anterior lobe of the pituitary
gland by binding to its
corticotropin-releasing
hormone-receptors, causing
the anterior pituitary to release
adreno corticotropic hormone.

38. Adreno corticotropic hormone
Adrenocorticotropic
hormone is the hormone
secreted by the anterior lobe
of the pituitary gland into
the body’s blood stream that
stimulates the cortex of the
adrenal gland by binding to
its adrenocorticotropic
hormone-receptors, causing
the adrenal gland to release
cortisol.

39. Cortisol
Cortisol is a steroid hormone, belonging to a
broader class of steroids called glucocorticoid,
produced by the adrenal gland and secreted
during a stress response. Its primary function is
to redistribute energy (glucose) to regions of the
body that need it most (i.e., the brain and major
muscles during a fight-or-flight situation). As a
part of the body’s fight-or-flight response,
cortisol also acts to suppress the body’s immune
system.
Cortisol is synthesized from cholesterol in the
adrenal cortex. Its primary function is to increase
blood sugar through gluconeogenesis, suppress
the immune system and aid in fat and protein
metabolism

40. Norepinephrine
Norepinephrine is a neurotransmitter released
from locus coeruleus when stimulated by the
hypothalamus during a stress response.
Norepinephrine serves as the primary chemical
messenger of the central nervous system’s
sympathetic branch that prepares the body for
fight-or-flight response.

41. Serotonin
Serotonin is a neurotransmitter synthesized
in the raphe nucleus of the pons of the
brainstem and projects to most brain areas.
Serotonin is thought to play an important
role in mood regulation. Stress-induced
serotonin dysfunctions have been
associated with anxiety, fear, and
depression-like symptoms.

42.  Neuropeptide Y is a protein that is
synthesized in the hypothalamus and acts
as a chemical messenger in the brain.
Traditionally, it has been thought to play an
important role in appetite, feeding
behavior, and satiety, but more recent
findings have implicated Neuropeptide Y in
anxiety and stress, specifically, stress
resiliency.

43. BIOLOGICAL MECHANISM

44. HYPOTHALAMUS PITUITARY ADRENAL
AXIS

46. The HPA axis is a multi-
step biochemical
pathway where
information is
transmitted from one
area of the body to the
next via chemical
messengers.
This is one way a
biochemical pathway can
regulate itself, via a
feedback mechanism.

47. When the hypothalamus receives signals from
one of its many inputs (e.g., cerebral
cortex, limbic system, visceral organs) about
conditions that deviate from an ideal
homeostatic state (e.g., alarming sensory
stimulus, emotionally charged event, energy
deficiency), this can be interpreted as the
initiation step of the stress-response cascade.

48. The hypothalamus is stimulated by its
inputs and then proceeds to secrete
corticotropin-releasing hormones.
This hormone is transported to its target,
the pituitary gland, via the hypophyseal
portal system(short blood vessels system),
to which it binds and causes the pituitary
gland to, in turn, secrete its own messenger,
adrenocorticotropic hormone, systemically
into the body’s blood stream.

49. When adrenocorticotropic hormone reaches and
binds to its target, the adrenal gland, in turn
releases the final key messenger in the cascade,
cortisol.
Cortisol, once released, has widespread effects in
the body

50. During an alarming situation in which a
threat is detected and signaled to the
hypothalamus from primary sensory and
limbic structures, cortisol is one way the
brain instructs the body to attempt to regain
homeostasis – by redistributing energy
(glucose) to areas of the body that need it
most, that is, toward critical organs (the
heart, the brain) and away from digestive
and reproductive organs, during a potentially
harmful situation in an attempt to overcome
the challenge at hand.

51. After enough cortisol has been secreted to best restore
homeostasis and the body’s stressor is no longer present
or the threat is no longer perceived, the heightened levels
of cortisol in the body’s blood stream eventually circulate
to the pituitary gland and hypothalamus to which cortisol
can bind and inhibit, essentially turning off the HPA-axis’
stress-response cascade via feedback inhibition. This
prevents additional cortisol from being released. This is
biologically identified as a normal, healthy stress
mechanism in response to a situation or stressor – a
biological coping mechanism for a threat to homeostasis.
It is when the body’s HPA-axis cannot overcome a
challenge and/or is chronically exposed to a threat that
this system becomes overtaxed and can be harmful to the
body and brain. A second major effect of cortisol

52. is to suppress the body’s immune system during a
stressful situation, again, for the purpose of
redistributing metabolic resources primarily to fight-
or-flight organs. While not a major risk to the body if
only for a short period of time, if under chronic stress,
the body becomes exceptionally vulnerable to immune
system attacks. This is a biologically negative
consequence of an exposure to a severe stressor and
can be interpreted as stress in and of itself – a
detrimental inability of biological mechanisms to
effectively adapt to changes in homeostasis.

53. EFFECTS OF STRESS

54. There have been at least 50
symptoms diagonised with
respect to stress.
1. Frequent headaches, jaw
clenching or pain
2. Gritting, grinding teeth
3. Stuttering or stammering
4. Tremors, trembling of lips,
hands
5. Neck ache, back pain,
muscle spasms
6. Light headedness, faintness,
dizziness
7. Ringing in the ears

55. 8. Frequent blushing, sweating
9. Dry mouth, problems swallowing
10. Cold or sweaty hands, feet
11. Frequent colds, infections
12. Rashes, itching, hives, “goose
bumps”
13. Unexplained or frequent allergy
attacks
14. Heartburn, stomach pain,
nausea

56. 26. Insomnia, nightmares, disturbing
dreams
27. Difficulty concentrating, racing
thoughts
28. Trouble learning new information
29. Forgetfulness, disorganization,
confusion
30. Difficulty in making decisions
31. Feeling overwhelmed
32. Frequent crying spells or suicidal
thoughts

57. 33. Feelings of loneliness or
worthlessness
34. Little interest in
appearance, punctuality
35. Nervous habits, feet
tapping, fidgeting
36. Increased frustration,
irritability
37. Overreaction to petty
annoyances
38. Increased number of
minor accidents
39. Obsessive/compulsive
behaviors
40. Reduced work
productivity.

60. MANAGEMENT

61. How to reduce ,prevent and cope
with stress?

62. 1. Identify the source.
2. Look at how
currently you cope
with stress.

63. THE "4 A MANTRA FOR STRESS.
Avoid the
unnecessary
stress.

64. Alter
the situation

65. Adapt to the
stressor.

66. ACCEPTANCE

67. OTHER STRATERGIES.
Healthy lifestyle.
-Going for a walk.
Calling a good friend.
Meditating.
Light scented candles.
Listen to music.
Watch a comedy.
Set aside relaxation time.
Exercise regularly.
Eat healthy diet.