Unit 1: Culture and Identity – 1 hour exam
1) Theories/conceptions of culture – how to achieve full marks
Link to specification: Different conceptions of culture, including subculture, mass culture, high and low culture,
popular culture, global culture. You will receive a separate handout for subcultures and global cultures so refer to
this for questions on these topics.
These handouts will summarise key concepts within each topic and how to answer the exam questions. They are
essential for revision and you should make sure you can answer each question within the time limit without notes. 1
minute per mark as a general guide for this paper.
Key terms glossary
Tip: flashcards/testing yourself is by far the quickest and most effective method of learning information and key
words. Do not rely on simply reading through notes – this is NOT effective and will waste a lot of time. Read, test,
check and repeat.
Question 1 - The first question on the paper is a 2 mark question that asks you to define a key term or concepts.
Any of the terms below could be asked e.g. Explain what is meant by the term culture.
Structural theory A theory which argues that individuals and their attitudes, roles and behaviour are formed
by the structures of the society in which they live through the influences of family, school
work place, mass media etc. These include Marxism and functionalism.
Social Action
theory
A theory which argues that individuals have control over the society around them and that
it is the actions of individuals and groups that dictates culture, norms and values. These
include labelling theory and symbolic interactionism.
Conflict theory A theory that emphasises the role of conflict when explaining society and how it works. E.g.
Marxism or radical feminism.
Consensus theory A theory that emphasises the importance of consensus and argues that society usually runs
smoothly within institutions working together to maintain social stability and achieve a
value consensus. Functionalism is a consensus theory.
Culture A way of life of a society which is learned through norms and values.
Norm An expected pattern of behaviour.
Value Important general beliefs e.g. honesty or privacy.
Socialisation The process of learning culture, particularly norms and values.
Value consensus Functionalist term for the shared agreement on important beliefs/actions within society
(Parsons).
Collective
conscience
Functionalist term (Durkheim) for the shared awareness of society’s values (similar concept
to value consensus).
High culture Cultural products and activities that are defined as superior in their creativity to those that
make up mass or popular culture. They have lasting artistic value.
Popular culture Cultural products such as films, television, pop music etc. enjoyed by a large number of
people.
Mass or 'low'
culture
Culture that is mass-produced and consumed by a large number of people. It is seen as
short-lived and having little artistic or intellectual value by some sociologists.
Folk culture Culture created by local communities, rooted in experiences, customs and beliefs of the

everyday life of ordinary people. It is passed on through generations and is seen as highly
authentic.
Dominant culture The culture of the dominant class in society, i.e. the ruling class – usually seen as forms of
high culture, knowledge of which can be used to their own advantage, as well as ideological
values that promote and maintain the capitalist system e.g. hard work and obedience to
authority.
Elitist/Elitsm When referring to culture, this is an attitude that high culture is of superior value and mass
culture cannot be respected for its intellectual or artistic contribution.
Cultural capital Knowledge of norms, values and experiences which are seen to be beneficial and positive
on an individual’s life chances. Middle class individuals and groups are able to maintain
dominant position and able to define their own culture as superior.
Gender role
socialisation
The process by which people learn how to act in feminine and masculine ways.
False class
consciousness
The state of not being aware of our true identity as exploited workers
Ideology The norms and values that justify the capitalist system
Marxism A sociological perspective based on the writings of Karl Marx. It believes that societies are
unequal and unfair. (NB: Marxism always has a capital M as it is named after a theorist)
Bourgeoisie The owners of business, and the dominant class in capitalist societies
Proletariat The working class in capitalist societies
Primary
Socialisation in the very early years of life, normally through parents.
socialisation
Subculture A group within a larger culture that shares aspects of that culture but also has some of its
own values and customs.
Consensus A general agreement
Functionalism A sociological perspective that focuses on understanding how the different parts of society
work together to keep it running smoothly.
Organic analogy This is an analogy outlined by Durkheim, who said that society's institutions work together
in harmony like organs in the human body and all have specific function. E.g. the role or
function of culture is to bind individuals to the collective conscience/value consensus
through shared experiences, rituals and traditions.
Mechanical society A pre-industrial society. This is a simple society made up of close-knit communities in which
roles tend to be more ascribed and there is a strong value consensus. Folk culture is much
more prominent as individuals and groups have to create their own entertainment.
Organic society An industrial society. This is a more complex society in which roles are less clearly defined
and status is more likely to be achieved by individuals. Mass culture is more prominent due
to the development of technology and mass production.
Pluralists Sociologists that emphasise the level of cultural diversity and choice in society and the
differing tastes of audiences.
Postmodernism Postmodernists disagree with Marxists that
Hegemonic Cultural dominance

Question 2 – 4 marks – briefly explain difference between two concepts OR briefly suggest two
factors/ways/characteristics.
Explain the difference between ‘high culture’ and ‘low culture’.
Explain the difference between 'mass culture' and 'popular culture'
Explain the difference between norms and values.
Explain the difference between the culture of the elite and the culture of the masses
Suggest two ways in which mass markets and consumption now make the distinction between high and popular
culture meaningless.
Suggest two difference between the way in which the nature of culture may differ in pre-industrial and industrial
societies.
Suggest two difference between the way in which the nature of culture may differ in mechanical and organic
societies.
Explain two reasons why the concept of high culture can be said to be elitist
Explain two reasons why folk culture can be seen as an authentic form of cultures
Suggest two reasons why mass culture may be seen in a derogatory way
Question 3 – 6 marks – briefly suggest two factors/ways/characteristics.
Suggest three ways in which high culture can be seen as superior to other forms of culture
Suggest three ways in which mass culture can be seen as inferior to other forms of culture
Suggest three characteristics of high/mass/folk culture (the question will specify one)
Suggest three aspects of the role of culture as seen from a structural/top-down perspective
Suggest three concepts associated with the Marxist/functionalist view of culture (the question will specify one)
Suggest three different ways in which the word 'culture' can be used
Suggest three ways in which cultures may differ
Suggest three reasons why a subculture may emerge within a society
Suggest three reasons why the spread of mass culture may lead to the decline of folk culture
Suggest three reasons why high culture may have been eroded by the spread of mass culture
Suggest three reasons why folk culture is more associated with pre-industrial societies
Suggest three ways in which the dominant class may benefit from their cultural capital
Question 4 and 5 – 24 mark essays – to achieve an A, you need to be gaining about 19 marks. Some are longer so
you would only write this much if the time allows. Use the exemplar essays below as a guide. NB: There are some
ideas/arguments/concepts that we are yet to cover as part of other topics.
Structure: Introduction – define key concepts and introduce main arguments; main body – 2-3 paragraphs explaining
arguments for and 2-3 paragraphs explaining arguments again; conclusion.
Assess sociological explanations of the role of culture in society (24 marks)
Culture is a set of norms, values, traditions and other shared characteristics amongst a group of people. Society is
simply a population, which may include a variety of cultures (and subcultures) e.g. a multicultural society. Opinions of
culture’s role within society differ between different sociological schools of thought. For Marxists, culture in society
reflects ruling-class ideology, while Functionalist sociologists argue that the culture of society reflects the shared
values of that society.
Functionalists believe that amongst society, a shared set of norms and values is what makes things run efficiently.
They argue that deviance and criminal activities occur when people do not adhere to the mainstream values within
that particular society. They argue that various agencies play their part in socialising individuals into a ‘value
consensus’. Examples of these agencies include family (primary socialisation) and the education system, the media
and agencies of social control like the police, which reinforce these values to preserve consensus. The role of culture,
therefore, is to maintain social stability by ensuring that people behave in similar and acceptable ways and share
similar values. Functionalists also refer to the organic analogy, which suggests that society works in a similar way to
the human body, with individual institutions performing specific functions. For example, the family is seen by Parsons
to be the 'heart' of the family as it is the initial agency of socialisation that teaches norms and values to children.
Without culture in society, functionalists argue that there would be no shared agreement on what these norms and
values are and society would descend into anomie (chaos). In addition, cultural practices including traditional rituals
and customs help individuals to feel part of a wider group, which according to Durkheim encourages a sense of social
solidarity (a sense of togetherness and belonging) amongst groups within society. Folk culture is particularly

important in mechanical societies but in more complex modern societies the role of education and media become
more important as there can be a lack of collective conscience (awareness).
However, it could be argued that multi-cultural societies, or societies with subcultures and divergent ideas, are not
always problematic. It can be argued that this consensus view doesn’t necessarily have to exist to the extent that
functionalists argue. For example, in multi-cultural cities like London, despite having people living in it with many
different norms and values, still tends to ‘function’ and be harmonious in this sense. In addition, it can be argued that
value consensus doesn’t truly exist anywhere, hence the emergence of subcultures everywhere.
In contrast, Marxism is a conflict theory that emphasises the role of culture in maintaining class inequality. Marxists
would argue that the so-called ‘value consensus’ was created by the Bourgeoisie to spread a hegemonic ideology
amongst the Proletariat through the use of the ideological and repressive state apparatuses (ISA and RSA). Marxists
believe that mainstream culture was designed by the Bourgeoisie to encourage a consumerist and productive society
to make a profit for the capitalist class. The Bourgeoisie-owned media corporations enforce capitalist values or
ideology by socialising the working and middle classes to work hard and spend money supporting this system. For
example, the education system is seen as an ISA which teaches children to adopt capitalist values through a 'hidden'
curriculum. These values represent the dominant culture of society and include values such as hard work and
obedience to authority as they prepare children for the workplace and exploitation in a capitalist system. In addition,
Marxists argue that a false class consciousness occurs as a result of the RSA and ISAs. This means that the
proletariat, or working class, who make up the majority of the population, are led to falsely believe that their role (in
which they are exploited for their labour) is beneficial to them and society in general.
Neo-Marxists from The Frankfurt School have been particularly critical of the role of mass culture in increasing the
wealth of the ruling class. For them, the role of culture is to create 'false needs' through advertising, which they
argue makes people buy consumer goods that they do not need and thus providing even greater profits to the
already wealthy bourgeoisie. They also say that standardised cultural goods are used to manipulate mass society
into passivity. Consumption of the easy pleasures of mass culture makes people docile and content, distracting them
from their difficult economic circumstances. Horkheimer refers to the 'one dimensional man' when explaining how
consumers are unable to think outside of the box and are therefore unlikely to challenge capitalism or be aware of
the exploitation they suffer (false consciousness). This idea can be criticised, however, as it can be argued that in
contemporary society, individuals can select from a wide range of cultural products and that mass culture does not
exist due to increasing diversity of individual tastes.
However, some sociologists have suggested that a mass culture does not exist in the way described by Macdonald or
sociologists from The Frankfurt School. They see mass cultural theory as very elitist as it fails to recognise that mass
culture can be interpreted and appreciated by other groups in distinct ways. From a social action perspective,
Garfinkel argues that individuals in society (the masses) are not “cultural dopes”, willing to consume “any old
rubbish” put before them by the mass media. They are often critical and reject many products, such as films and
television programmes which they may find insufficiently interesting or entertaining. This can be observed by the way
in which social networking is now used to debate the quality of television shows such as X-Factor; in 2011 a
campaign was launched to promote a song by rock band Rage Against the Machine for the UK Christmas number one
instead of the competition's winner. The song had an anti-capitalist message and this campaign can be seen as an
example of an audience reaction that is far from passive or docile.
Postmodernists and interactionists would argue that both of these macro/structural theories are too deterministic in
the role of culture in society, and that ‘norms and values’ are not universally seen as ‘normal’ and ‘valued’; many
people reject them and form their own subcultures. Both functionalists and Marxists ignore the choices that people
have and that, according to Strinati, people are not just ‘cultural dopes’. There is no shared culture, as globalisation,
technological advancements and the plethora of media outlets and formats, mean that people have emerged to form
far more pluralistic, bespoke and hybrid identities. Therefore, postmodernists and interactionists are likely to argue
that culture and society are less significant and influential than in previous stages of modernity. This can be seen in
the way individuals mix and match different cultural influences from a postmodern perspective (e.g. Bollywood) or
form their own constantly evolving cultural ideas in a bottom-up way from an interactionist perspective (e.g. the
unique emergence of ‘Gangnam Style – as ‘popular culture’ – or Anish Kapoor’s ‘orbit’ piece of artwork at the London
Olympic site – as ‘high culture’).
In conclusion, from a structural perspective culture has a very important role in determining behaviour through
conformity to norms and values, with different theories seeing this as a source of either conflict or consensus.

However, in a postmodern society, it could be argued that the value consensus from a functionalist perspective, or
hegemony/dominant culture from a Marxist perspective is breaking down and becoming more fragmented. This may
mean that the role of culture will not be seen as uniting the whole of society, but as a way of binding individuals to
the particular small groups of which they are members.
Assess the Marxist theory of culture. (same as above but explain Marxist views first and greater analysis of Marxist
views in conclusion)
Assess the functionalist theory of culture. (same as above but explain functionalist views first and greater analysis of
Marxist views in conclusion)
Assess the view that a mass culture exists in society today. (24 marks)
In the 1950s there was a huge concern regarding the impact of mass culture, which was seen as debasing ordinary
cultures such as forms of folk culture. Mass culture refers to the products of the mass media in modern capitalist
societies, such as television programmes, films, popular fiction, magazines and comics, and popular music. It is seen
as having inferior value to forms of high culture. As mentioned in Item A, the term 'mass culture' is often used by
Marxist theorists to explain the negative impact of mass produced and short-lived forms of culture that create false
needs and require very little intelligence of audiences. They believe this allows the ruling class to maintain power
through profit-making and maintaining false consciousness. On the other hand, other sociologists such as
postmodernists argue that audiences can think critically and that the vast array of cultural products available mean
that there is increasing choice and diversity, and therefore there is not a 'universal' mass culture.
Some sociologists have argued that a mass culture, established during the 1950s and it can be argued that it still
exists today. Dwight Macdonald (1957) argues that mass culture is a worthless and mindless form of culture that is
designed to appeal to the lowest common denominator, or in other words, pitched at the lowest level of intelligence
in society. He argues that it is unchallenging, short-lived and has little to say. As it is not created by consumers
themselves, it is argued that it does not express a genuine culture in the way folk culture does, and that it does not
have any intrinsic artistic value in the way that high culture does. It is standardised and commercial with profit-making
being the main purpose. Individuals who consume mass culture are seen as 'cultural dopes' by Macdonald,
not wishing to be intellectually stimulated by television shows, music, or other forms of entertainment. Whilst some
might suggest that Macdonald's ideas are outdated decades later, it can be argued that Macdonald's view is still
relevant today as the culture industry that he rejects has grown significantly since the 1950s. In addition, some
television shows, pop music and consumer products have become even more homogenised (similar) and
manufactured. For example, pop artists are frequently criticised for being artificial and manufactured as they do not
have control over their music or image.
However, Gans (1974) attacked this type of value judgement arguing that there were a variety of taste cultures in
America, all of which were equally worthwhile. High culture is innovative and deals with abstract concepts such as
political theory, but other popular cultures also address moral issues and perhaps pay attention to relevant issues
such as economic survival, which the more affluent high culture ignored. In a plural and democratic society all taste
cultures are worthy of respect.
Similarly to Macdonald, The Frankfurt School argued that mass culture is manufactured for mass consumption rather
than created for its own sake and, consequently, has little or no artistic merit compared with the products of high
culture. Arguing from a Neo-Marxist perspective, that standardised cultural goods are used to manipulate mass
society into passivity. Consumption of the easy pleasures of mass culture makes people docile and content,
distracting them from their difficult economic circumstances. Horkheimer refers to the 'one dimensional man' when
explaining how consumers are unable to think outside of the box and are therefore unlikely to challenge capitalism or
be aware of the exploitation they suffer (false consciousness). This idea can be criticised, however, as it can be
argued that in contemporary society, individuals can select from a wide range of cultural products and that mass
culture does not exist due to increasing diversity of individual tastes. Multiculturalism in Britain has lead to greater
recognition and celebration of traditional religious and/or folk cultures e.g. schools recognise celebrations such as Eid
and Diwali.
The Frankfurt school also criticise the creation of false needs that can only be met and satisfied by the products of
capitalism. It is argued that advertising of standardised and mass-produced products make people desire products
that they don't actually need, as mentioned in Item A, and that the purpose of this is to create profit for the ruling

class. In this way, consumerism is a method of social control and the need to buy more and more will maintain
wealth inequality. It also further ensures a state of false consiousness as individuals are too distracted by the allure of
consumerism to question the unfair system. These views can be seen as valid because the growth of the internet and
adverising since the 1950s has led to an increase in mass-produced products and the growth of transnational
corporations (TNCs) has lead to a further standardisation of products. However, as forms of high culture have always
been associated with the upper classes, it could be argued that the majority of people have never been able to access
them anyway regardless of the growth of mass culture.
Some sociologists have suggested that a mass culture does not exist in the way described by Macdonald or
sociologists from The Frankfurt School. They see mass cultural theory as very elitist as it fails to recognise that mass
culture can be interpreted and appreciated by other groups in distinct ways. From a social action perspective,
Garfinkel argues that individuals in society (the masses) are not “cultural dopes”, willing to consume “any old
rubbish” put before them by the mass media. They are often critical and reject many products, such as films and
television programmes which they may find insufficiently interesting or entertaining. This can be observed by the way
in which social networking is now used to debate the quality of television shows such as X-Factor; in 2011 a
campaign was launched to promote a song by rock band Rage Against the Machine for the UK Christmas number one
instead of the competition's winner. The song had an anti-capitalist message and this campaign can be seen as an
example of an audience reaction that is far from passive or docile.
Strinati also disagrees with mass cultural theory and takes a more pluralist view in arguing that culture in modern
societies is not homogenous but encompasses a wide range of styles and genres. Popular music includes rap, soul,
jazz, sampling, novelty songs and serious ballads. Furthermore, he argues that a one-dimensional mass culture does
not exist as there is now no clear-cut boundary between high and mass culture. Due to the growth of the media, high
and mass culture have become more integrated, for instance a Shakespare play being made into a Hollywood film.
Whilst some sociologists would see this as 'dumbing down' high culture, Strinati argues that this makes high culture
easier to access. He also says that what was once considered to be mass culture may come to be taken seriously as
art e.g. jazz music, films of Alfred Hitchcock, rock n roll records that have attained the status of classics.
In conclusion, it cannot be refuted that the growth of mass production, advertising and, more recently, the internet
has led to a major increase in consumption and that some people may choose to engage with more simple forms of
culture that are less intellectually stimulating than high culture. This can lead to the development of false needs
which inevitably results in high profits for producers of mass culture, thus allowing capitalism to expand. However, it
can also be argued that false consciousness is not necessarily the fault of mass culture as people have the ability to
think critically and often reject forms of culture that are too simplistic or lack intellectual challenge. Furthermore, in a
postmodern society, a mass culture cannot be said to exist due to the level of cultural diversity and wide range of
music, television, books and other entertainment available.
Assess the view that the erosion of the distinction between high and mass culture is to be welcomed attempt this
essay based on the plan below:
Another word for decline
or
Assess the view that the erosion of the distinction between high and mass culture is to be welcomed.
Identified differences
What is this question asking me? It is asking you to assess whether or not mass culture and high culture should be
maintained as separate forms of culture or whether sociologists should encourage the hybridization of these forms
of culture e.g. Shakespeare plays being made into blockbuster films available to mass audiences.
Reasons FOR: the erosion of the distinction between these types of culture would remove elitist attitudes towards
culture and encourage greater class equality as middle class individuals could not benefit from their superior
knowledge. High culture becoming accessible to all classes means that one group does not have an advantage over
another.
Reasons AGAINST: The hybridization of mass and high culture could lead to a ‘diluting’ of high culture, meaning that
is loses it artistic and creative meaning and importance. The highest intellectual achievements of a society should be

preserved and maintained so that they do not lose their specialness and uniqueness. Frankfurt school is very
pessimistic about mass culture as it discourages critical thought, “dumbs down” audiences and distracts them from
capitalist exploitation.
Introduction
Define high culture
Define mass culture
No longer just two
types of culture…
Main body:
Theorist/t
heory
Support/against the view? What do they say?
Kidd Neither – highlights the
ways in which high culture
can be viewed.
Identifies “the highest intellectual achievements of a group in the fields
of science, art, literature, theatre, music etc” as a vital component of
(high) culture. Understanding high culture needs access to a particular
kind of education. The division between high and low culture is
reinforced through the socialisation process. Agencies of socialisation,
such as the education system and the mass media, present some
cultural products as more ‘worthy’ than others.
High culture is viewed as elitist by some groups (especially Marxists).
High culture is given more status in society because it represents the
highest level of human creativity and is aesthetically superior to other
cultural products and leisure activities.
Bourdieu Support – distinction
between high and mass
culture allows the middle
classes to maintain their
dominance.
Bourdieu (1977) analysed educational achievement in France. He
suggested that middle-class success in education is not just a result of
economic advantage but also of cultural advantage. Bourdieu argues
that through the process of socialisation the children of the wealthy
learn to understand and appreciate high culture as this is the type of
culture that their parents appreciate. The school curriculum tends to be
based on cultural forms that are seen as rare and worthy and a child
who is familiar with this culture is more likely to succeed.
Low culture is the counterpart of high culture and is seen as inferior to
it. Low culture is associated with the tastes of lower socio-economic
groups. Low culture is sometimes called mass culture.
Frankfurt
School
Against – the spread of
mass culture should not be
encouraged at all as it has a
harmful effect on audiences.
The Frankfurt School have argued that this type of culture is
manufactured for mass consumption rather than created for its own
sake and, consequently, has little or no artistic merit compared with the
products of high culture. Moreover, it is suggested that mass culture is
harmful because it discourages critical thought. Others suggest that it
is a corrupting influence on young people, e.g. a recent debate in 2007
has focused on the alleged negative influence of hip hop or rap music.
Strinati For – mass culture can be
artistic and intellectual and
therefore the blending of
high and mass culture offers
more variety to audiences.
Against Frankfurt school and argued that it was quite elitist and
assumed that people were willing to consume any old rubbish put
before them. In fact, Strinati argued, people did criticise and reject
elements of mass culture, and therefore they were neither passive nor
homogeneous. In addition to this, even mass culture has a variety of
styles and genres. Lastly, Strinati argues that the theory of mass culture
rests upon the assumption that there is a clear boundary between high
and mass culture. However, in reality this is not the case, as these
boundaries are not constant but are actually blurred, challenged and

redrawn. For example, Alfred Hitchcock’s detective movies have
attained the status of classics.
Postmode
rnists
Against - Mass culture and high culture both losing their significance due to
influence of global cultures that replaces them both. Some
postmodernists would say this is means culture is becoming more
homogeneous and losing its uniqueness. Forms of culture with higher
artistic and intellectual value should be preserved
Conclusion:
Support
the view..
Do not
support
the view..
A mixture
of
both/othe
r points