1. By: Sawsan Fawzy

2.  In interpreting group structure we have to split the ideational component into
two: experiential and logical.
 Experiential analysis: is the organization of experience; an extremely simple
analysis.
 Logical relations: carry most of the semantic load including e.g. tense
system. They describe complex units. A group is a complex unit that is termed
word complex.
 Word complex: is a combination of words built up on the basis of a particular
logical relations This is why it is called a group (= ‘group of words’)
 5 types of groups: nominal, verbal, adverbial, conjunction, prepositional
 Groups functions in clauses:
In terms of the modal structure of the clause, nominal groups serve as Subject
or Complement, verbal groups as Finite + Predicator, and adverbial groups as
Adjunct
 In terms of the experiential structure, nominal groups serve in participant roles,
verbal groups as Process, and adverbial groups in circumstance roles.

4.  Experientially, it consists of: a Thing (common n. , proper n. or personal pron.)
preceded and followed by various elements characterizing this Thing.
 Logically/Semantically: it usually (not always) consists of a Head (common n. ,
proper n. or personal pron.) plus Premodifiers or Postmodifires.
Example: Look at those two splendid old electric trains with pantographs!
 Most of this clause consists of one long nominal group, those two splendid old
electric trains with pantographs!
 This group contains the noun trains as Head preceded and can be followed by
various other items.

5.  I.A.1 Experiential structure: describe classes and functions of
Premodifiers and Postmodifiers

6.  I.A.1.1 Deictic: the use of a word or phrase whose meaning depends on who is talking,
who they are talking to, where they are, etc., for example "me" , "here", or "yesterday."
 Class: adv, pron., determiners, ‘s …etc
 Function: shows us if the Thing is specific or non-specific. It belongs to system of
DETERMINATION.
 Deictic is either specific or non-specific
 Specific: classes mentioned above.
 Non-specific: total or partial non-specification

7.  Non-specific: total or partial non-specification
 Absence of Deictic means non-specification

8.  Post-Deictic/Deictic 2: not only specifies but also identifies the
Thing; adjectives
Examples:
-There are many self-styled anarchists who insist, often with great
passion, that theirs is the only right way, and that others do not merit
the term (and maybe are criminals of one or another sort). (Text 212)
-This is the necessary first step. (LOB_B)

9.  Post-Deictic/Deictic 2: not only specifies but also identifies the
Thing

10.  I.A.1.2 Numerative: an element that indicates some numerical feature of the
particular subset of the Thing: either quantity or order, either exact or inexact.
For example:
- They have identified several proteins that help Ephs and ephrins control the
cytoskeleton (Text 398)
- Many visitors prefer the fine beaches of Redondo Beach State Beach, Torrance
County Beach, and Malaga Cove, south of the city (Text 140)
- An unknown number of passengers are still missing (Text 5)

11.  I.A.1.2 Numerative: an element that indicates some numerical feature of the
particular subset of the Thing: either quantity or order, either exact or inexact.
 (a) The quantifying Numeratives (or ‘quantitatives’) specify either an exact
number(cardinal numerals, for example two trains) or an inexact number (for
example many trains,lots of trains).
 (b) The ordering Numeratives (or ‘ordinatives’) specify either an exact place in
order (ordinal numerals, for example the second train) or an inexact place (for
example a subsequent train).

12.  I.A.1.3 Epithet: an adjective added to a person's name or a phrase
used instead of it, usually to criticize or praise them

13.  I.A.1.3 Epithet: an adjective added to a person's name or a phrase
used instead of it, usually to criticize or praise them
 Experiential Epithet: describes “defines” participants of the
experiential clause; but not circumstances or processes
e.g: a long train
Examples:
- Naval authorities believe the boat may have capsized because it was
carrying a heavy load of construction materials in choppy waters.
(Text 5)
- Then he saw it — a large red feather barely sticking out of the straw
mat. (Text 65)
 Interpersonal Epithet: describes speaker’s attitudes ,
e.g. such a mighty train
Example: I knocked on the door and an awfully sweet lady came.

14.  I.A.1.4 Classifier: indicates a particular sub-class of the Thing--more or
less any feature that may serve to classify a set of things into a system
of smaller sets.
 Sometimes the same adj. may function as an Epithet or a Classifier, e.g.
fast train.
 Difference between Epithet and Classifier is not a very sharp one, but
there are significant differences: Classifiers do not accept degrees of
comparison or intensity — we cannot have a more electric train or a very
electric train; and they tend to be organized in mutually exclusive and
exhaustive sets — a train is either electric, steam or diesel.

15.  Functions and word classes:
Deictic Deictic2 Numerative Epithet Classifier Thing
determiner adjective numeral adjective noun or adjective noun
 These word classes — noun (= common noun), adjective, numeral and
determiner — are all different kinds of noun; they are subclasses of this
one primary class. This larger class are sometimes referred to as
‘nominals’, to avoid confusion with ‘noun’ in its narrower, more specific
sense.
 Verbs may enter into a nominal group: they function as Epithet or
Classifier. Verbs function in the nominal group in one of two forms:
(i) present (active) participle, V-ing, e.g. losing, as in a losing battle.
(ii) past (passive, or intransitive) participle, V-en, e.g. lost, as in a lost
cause.
Participial adj. in Traditional Grammar

16.  I.A.1.5 The Principle of ordering:
 We move from the less permanent to the more permanent
Specification Quantitative
Qualitative e.g. intensifiers, attitudinal adj.
Superlatives 1st
Classifiers

17.  I.A.1.6 Qualifier:
 Unlike the elements that precede the Thing, which are words (or
sometimes word complexes, like two hundred, very big; see Section 6.3.2,
p. 337), what follows the Thing is either a phrase or a clause.
Examples:
- The course [of science] and the course [of military endeavors] is very
close. (phrase)
- Do you read any English novelists [[who seem to you Kafkaesque]]?
(clause)
 Qualifiers can be finite or non-finite clauses, or prepositional phrases

18.  Qualifiers can be finite or non-finite clauses, or prepositional phrases

19.  With only rare exceptions, all Qualifiers are rank-shifted as they, in their
own structure, are of a rank higher than or at least equivalent to that of the
nominal group, which is the structure they are downgraded to function
within.
 They are embedded clauses or phrases.
 Non-defining relative clause (parenthetical) is not embedded.

20.  I.A.1.7 Thing:
The semantic core of the nominal group. It maybe a common n. , proper n. or
personal pron.
a) Personal pron.

21. b) Proper names:
names of particular persons, individually or as a group; institutions of all kinds;
and places. They may consist of one word or many.
Those may consist of two or more words, such as Polly Perkins, or Cathay
Pacific Airlines, obviously have their own internal structure; but we shall treat
all such instances simply as Thing
c) Common n.:
their name implies, are nouns that are common (i.e. generalized) to a class of
referents, e.g. table, book.
They categorized into
1- Countability
2- Animacy
3- Generality, e.g. many classes of things are organized in the form of
taxonomies: a wild strawberry is a kind of strawberry, a strawberry is a kind of
berry, a berry is a kind of fruit.

22.  I.A.2 Logical structure of the nominal group:
The structure of the nominal group from a different, and complementary, point
of view; the representation of logical-semantic relations. We will take account
of just one such relationship, that of subcategorization: ‘a is a subset of x’.
This has usually been referred to in the grammar of the nominal group as
modification.
 This time, we start with the most general term, trains, the group Head,
moving to the left, the modifier.
 The basis of the modification of course shifts as we move to the left:
‘what type of . . .?’, ‘what quality of . . .?’, ‘how many . . .?’ and so on.

23.  The Head can be modified by Premodifiers or Postmodifiers.
The distinction between them is not a functional one, but depends on the
rank of the modifying term; compare:
a weatherboard shack by the roadside
with a roadside shack made out of weatherboard.
 These two are not synonymous, but the difference lies in the information
structure: the item located at Postmodifier has the greater potential as
news; it can be the New information unit.
 But the Postmodifier does not itself enter into the logical structure,
because it is not construed as a word complex, but as a non-finite
clause??

24.  The logical analysis brings out the hypotactic basis of premodification in
the nominal group.
 Hypotactic relations: expansion by modification
 The example below is generated (expanded) as an iteration of the same
functional relationship: a is modified by b, which is modified by g, which is
…etc.
 That is why the modifiers are marked by letters, to show their order, not by
different functions.

25.  In Fig. 6-6, the logical structure, the elements are marked by letters, to show how
they are generated by the same functional relationship. (Univariate structure)
 By contrast, in Fig. 6-1, the experiential structure, the modifiers are marked by
different functions. (Multivariate structure)
(Logical Structure of the nominal group)

26.  The verbal group is the constituent that functions as Finite plus Predicator
(or as Predicator alone if there is no Finite element) in the mood structure
(clause as exchange); and as Process in the transitivity structure (clause
as representation).
 In the clause: someone’s been eating my sandwich
the verbal group is has been eating.
 A verbal group is the expansion of a verb, in the same way that a nominal
group is the expansion of a noun
 It consists of a sequence of words of the primary class of verb.
 has been eating is a word sequence; it contains a lexical verb eat, which
comes last; a finite verb has, which comes first; and an auxiliary verb been,
which comes in between. No other ordering of these three components is
possible.

27.  I.B.1 Experiential structure:
The experiential structure of the finite verbal group is Finite (standing for
‘Finite operator’) plus Event, with optional elements Auxiliary (one or more)
and Polarity.
 Event is a main verb; it is a neutral term as we do not specify the type of
the verb: happening, doing, saying, being or having.
 Finite verbal groups range from short, one-word items such as ate, where
the Finite is fused with the Event and there is no Auxiliary, to long strings
like couldn’t have been going to be being eaten

28.  I.B.2 Logical structure:
It embodies the single most important semantic feature of the English verb,
its recursive tense system, and the elements of the logical structure are not
the individual words but certain rather more complex elements.
 The verbal group has been eating makes three separate tense choices:
(1) present, expressed by the -s in has,
(2) past, expressed by the verb have plus the -en in been ;
(3) present, expressed by the verb be plus the -ing in eating

29.  I.B.3 Primary and secondary tenses:
 The primary tense is carried by 1st verb, any verb except for modals.
 Secondary tenses are carried by any verbs except for Finite.
 The primary tense, on of the simple tenses, functions as Head. The
modifying elements, perfective and progressive aspects, are secondary
tenses.

30.  I.B.4 Naming of tenses: we work backwards, beginning with the deepest
and using the preposition in to express the serial modification. Thus the
tense in Figure 6-16 is ‘present in past in future in past.’
 The expression of polarity is tied to that of finiteness
 The expression of voice is an extension of that of tense.
 The active has no explicit marker; the passive is expressed by be or get
plus V-en (past/passive participle)

31.  Passive:
The active has no explicit marker; the passive is expressed by be or get
plus V-en (past/passive participle)
 It appears as an additional modifying element at the end.
 Passive thus functions like an extra secondary tense
 It displays a distinctive combination of presentness (be) and pastness (V-
en) suggesting ‘to be in a present condition resulting from a past event’,
e.g. are joined as in the two halves of the city are joined by a bridge.
 For this reason there is no very clear line between passives and attributes
having passive form.

32.  I.B.5 Stop rules:
TENSE system is recursive; however, these rules limit the recurrence of tenses
within the same clause:
 (i) Apart from primary tense, future occurs only once.
 (ii) Apart from primary tense, present occurs only once, and always at the
deepest level.
 (iii) Apart from primary tense, the same tense does not occur twice
consecutively.
 These restrictions limit the total number of finite tenses to 36
 Stop rules examples:
Past –
Future +
Present ∅
 Regularly occurring:
+ − + will have been going to work
+ − ∅ will have been working
 Not normally found:
++− will be being working
− ∅ − was having worked

33.  I.B.6 The system network of the verbal group
 The verbal group is highly grammaticalized: all elements of its structure
except for the Event are realized by grammatical items; they belong to
grammatical classes.
 The Event is the only one that is realized by a lexical item.
 The systems of the verbal group derive from different metafunctions:
some choices are experiential, e.g. processes types; some are
interpersona,l e.g. MOOD choices, e.g. POLARITY; some are textual, e.g.
ELLIPSIS (lexical/operator).

34.  I.B.7 Phrasal verbs
 Phrasal verbs are lexical verbs which consist of more than just the verb
word itself. They are of two kinds, plus a third which is a combination of the
other two:
 (i) verb + adverb, for example look out
 (ii) verb + preposition, for example look for ‘seek’
 (iii) verb + adverb + preposition, for example look out for ‘watch for the
presence of’
 Experientially, a phrasal verb is a single Process, rather than Process plus
circumstantial element.

35.  I.C.1 Definition
The adverbial group serves as Adjunct in the modal structure of the clause
— either circumstantial Adjunct or modal Adjunct (mood or comment).
Examples:
 (1) circumstantial Adjunct
- Yeah but it didn’t aggressively market them. (UTS/Macquarie Corpus)
- You’ve coped beautifully tonight; you’ve coped so well compared to how I
would have coped.
 (2a) interpersonal Adjunct, mood
- I actually didn’t have a lot of chicken; I had probably more vegetables.
(UTS/Macquarie Corpus)
 (2b) interpersonal Adjunct, comment
Unfortunately, he isn’t not coming.

36.  The adverbial group has an adverb as Head, which may or may not be
accompanied by modifying elements.
 Adverbial groups serving as circumstantial Adjunct have an adverb
denoting a circumstance as Head — for example, a circumstance of time (e.g.
yesterday, today, tomorrow) or of quality (e.g. well, badly; fast, quickly, slowly).
 Adverbial groups serving as modal Adjunct have an adverb denoting an
assessment as Head — for example, an assessment of time (e.g. still, yet,
already) or of intensity (e.g. really, just, only, actually).
 Examples are given in the following table

39.  I.C.2 Premodification:
Premodifiers are grammatical items like not and so; there is no lexical
premodification in the adverbial group. They belong to grammatical classes
that make up systems.
 The items serving as Premodifiers are adverbs belonging to one of three
types — polarity (not), comparison (more, less; as, so) and intensification.
 Those of intensification indicate higher or lower intensity; they are:
 General intensifiers that are interpersonally neutral (very, much, quite,
really, completely, totally, utterly; rather, fairly, pretty; almost, nearly),
including the interrogative adverb how
 Specific ones that derive from some interpersonally significant scale
(amazingly, astonishingly, awfully, desperately, incredibly, perfectly)

40.  I.D.1 Definition
Within the ‘primary’ word class of adverbials, there is another class
besides adverbs, namely conjunctions. Regarding their grammatical roles,
they form three subclasses, namely linkers (coordinators), binders
(subordinators) and continuatives (well, oh, yeah...).
 Conjunctions form word groups by modification, for example even if, just
as, not until, if only.

41.  I.E.1 Definition
Prepositions are not a sub-class of adverbials; functionally they are related
to verbs. They form groups by modification, in the same way as
conjunctions; e.g., right behind, not without, way off as in right behind the
door
 Preposition group is a Modifier-Head structure expanded from and
functionally equivalent to a preposition

42.  I.F.1 Definition
The prepositional phrase serves as Adjunct in the modal structure of the
clause; less commonly, it serves as an interpersonal Adjunct, e.g. because
literature is in some cases the product of the imagination, isn’t it?
 Like the adverbial group, it can serve as circumstantial Adjunct, e.g. stop
for lunch, dear.
 Like the conjunction group, it can serve as conjunctive Adjunct, e.g. well in
that case do they pay after the issues come out

43.  I.F.2 Similarity and difference between preposition phrase and non-
finite clause
The internal structure of across the lake is like that of crossing the lake, with a
non-finite verb as Predicator.
 In some similar instances, there is a non-finite verb that is more or less
interchangeable with the preposition, e.g. near/adjoining (the house),
without/not wearing (a hat)
 However, one of the clear differences between both is that non-finite
clauses are clauses; that is, they can be expanded to include other
elements of clause structure, whereas prepositional phrases cannot.
 One can say either he left the city in his wife’s car or he left the city taking
his wife’s car; but only the latter can be expanded to he left the city taking
his wife’s car quietly out of the driveway.

44.  I.F.3 Prepositional phrase on
a) experiential level
b) interpersonal level

45.  I.F.4 Difference between preposition phrase and group
 Prepositional phrases are phrases, not groups; they have no logical
structure as Head and Modifier, and cannot be reduced to a single
element.
 In this respect, phrases are clause-like rather than group-like; hence when
we interpret the preposition as ‘minor Predicator’ and ‘minor Process,’ we
interpret the prepositional phrase as a kind of ‘minor clause’ — which is
what it is.
 In other words, a phrase is different from a group in that, whereas a group
is an expansion of a word, a phrase is a contraction of a clause.
 However, starting from opposite ends, the two achieve roughly the same
status on the rank scale, as units that lie somewhere between the rank of
a clause and that of a word.