1. Perl6 Signatures,
Types and Multicall

2. About Me
● Simon Proctor
● Scimon in many places
● Senior Dev at Zoopla (we’re hiring)
● simon.proctor@gmail.com

3. Part 1 : Signatures

4. No Signature
sub foo {
@_.say;
}
● Should be familiar to Perl devs
● All arguments put into lexical @_ array
● @_ array only populated with arguments in this case only
● I would not encourage using this

5. No Signature (Note)
sub foo {
@_.say;
}
foo( A => 1 );
*ERRORS*
foo( ( A => 1 ) );
[A => 1]
When calling a sub (or method)
a Pair using either
A => 1 or :A(1) syntax will be
treated as a named argument.
In Perl6 => is not just a fat
comma.

6. Empty Signature
sub foo() {
say “I take orders from no one”;
}
● Specifically states this subroutine takes no arguments.
● Will error (generally at compile time) if called with arguments.
● Not just constants
○ Variables in outer scope available
○ State variables for generators

7. Empty Signature (methods)
method foo() {
say self.bar;
}
● Object methods with an empty signature also error if called
with arguments.
● Have access to self (and the $ alias) though.

8. Positional Arguments
sub foo($a,$b,$c) {
say “$a : $b : $c”;
}
● Maps arguments to lexical variables based on position
● Errors unless the exact number of arguments are passed

9. Positional Arguments (methods)
method foo($foo: $a) {
say “{$foo.attr} : $a”;
}
● Optional initial argument separated with : defines another
reference for self that can be used in the method
● Useful with where clauses and multi methods
● Also can be used to specify class methods

10. Positional Arguments : Defaults and optional
sub foo($a, $b?, $c=5, $d=$c*2) {
say “$a : $b : $c : $d”;
}
foo(1,2)
1 : 2 : 5 : 10
● Any positions not filled will get their defaults
● Defaults are calculated for each call
● Defaults can be based on values earlier in the
argument list.
● Mark an argument as optional with ? after the
name.

11. Positional Arguments : Sigils
sub foo(@a) {
say @a;
}
foo(1,2)
Errors
foo( [1,2] )
[1,2]
@ and % sigils are type signifiers for Positional
and Associative roles.

12. Positional Arguments : Flattening Slurpy
sub foo(*@a) {
say @a;
}
foo(1,2)
[1,2]
foo( 1,[2,3] )
[1,2,3]
Single * will slurp and flatten all remaining
positional arguments.
foo(1,(2,3))
[1,2,3]
foo(1,{2 => 3})
[1,{2=>3}]

13. Positional Arguments : Non Flattening Slurpy
sub foo(**@a) {
say @a;
}
foo(1,2)
[1,2]
foo( 1,[2,3] )
[1,[2,3]]
Double * will slurp all remaining positional
arguments but not flatten lists or hashes.
foo(1,(1,2))
[1,(1,2)]
foo(1,{2 => 3})
[1,{2=>3}]

14. Positional Arguments : Single Rule Slurpy
sub foo(+@a) {
say @a;
}
foo(1)
[1]
foo( [2,3] )
[2,3]
A + slurpy will flatten a single iterable object
into the arguments array. Otherwise it works
like **.
foo(1,[2,3])
[1,[2,3]]
foo(1,{2 => 3})
[1,{2=>3}]

15. Positional Arguments : Combinations
sub foo($a,*@b) {
say “$a :
{@b.perl}”;
}
foo(1)
1 : []
foo( 1,[2,3] )
1 : [2,3]
● You can combine positional and slurpy
argument.
● The slurpy has to come last.
● You can only have one slurpy argument.
foo(1,2,3)
1 : [2,3]
foo(1,2,3,{a => 5})
1:[2,3,:a(5)]

16. Named Arguments
sub foo(:$a,:$b!) {
say “$a & $b”;
}
foo(a=>“b”,b=>“c”)
b & c
foo(:a<bar>)
Required named parameter 'b'
not passed
● Define named arguments with a ‘:’ in front
of the lexical variable.
● Named arguments are not required.
● Append the name with ! to make it
required.
foo(:b<bar>)
& bar
Use of uninitialized value $a of
type Any in string context.

17. Alternate Named Arguments
sub foo(:bar(:$b)) {
say $b;
}
foo(b=>“a”)
a
foo(:bar<bar>)
bar
● Alternate argument names can be
nested multiple times :
○ :$val
○ :v($val)
■ :v() in call
○ :v(:$val)
■ :v() or :val()
○ :valid(:v(:$val))
● All referenced as $val in the sub
● Useful for sub MAIN

18. Combining Named and Positional Arguments
sub foo($a,:$b) {
say $a if $b;
}
foo(“Hi”,:b)
Hi
foo(“Crickets”)
● Positional arguments have to be
defined before named.
● You can combine a slurpy
positional and named arguments.

19. Named Arguments : Slurpy Hash
sub foo(*%a) {
say %a;
}
foo(a=>b)
{a => b}
Using * on a hash will take all the named
argument pairs and put them in the given hash.
foo( b => [5,6],
:a(b) )
{b => [5,6], a => b}
foo( :a, :!b )
{ a => True,
b => False }

20. Constraints (Part 1)
sub foo($a where * > 10) {
say $a;
}
foo(5);
Errors
The where clause needs to be true or the
system will throw an Exception.
You can CATCH this normally.
Where clauses can be chained:
where * > 10 where *.is-prime
foo(11);
11

21. Constraints (Part 2)
sub foo($a where * > 10 where .is-prime) {
say $a;
}
foo(5);
Errors
foo(12);
Errors
Where clauses can be chained
foo(13);
13

22. Sub Signatures
sub foo(@a ($b, $c)){
say “$b : $c”;
}
foo([1,2]);
1 : 2
foo(1,2);
Errors
foo([1,2,3]);
Errors
Positional and Associative objects can
have sub signatures assigned to them.
Sub signatures can be nested.
(But you might want to think if there’s
an easier plan)

23. Captures
my $c = (1,2,3);
sub foo(*@in) {
[+] @in
}
say foo(|$c);
6
Signatures and Captures are both first class
objects.
You can introspect signatures to get
information about them.
Captures can be stored and reused and
examined as well.
For further information I’d advise looking at
the docs:
https://docs.perl6.org/type/Signature

24. Part 2 : Types

25. Simple Types
sub foo(Int $a) {
say $a;
}
foo(5)
5
foo(“bob”)
Errors
Depending on how you are calling your
function you may get a run time or a compile
time error.
Types can be built in or newly created Classes
(or Roles).
Types can be applied to named or positional
parameters

26. Type Coercion
sub foo(Int() $a) {
say $a;
}
If you want allow anything that can be
cast to the given type.
Note this will only ever give runtime
errors.
foo(5.5)
5
foo(5e5)
50000
foo(5)
5
foo(“bob”)
Errors
foo(“5”)
5

27. Advanced Type Coercion
sub foo(Int(Numeric) $a) {
say $a;
}
Type() == Type(Any) for coercion.
You can give a more specific type if
required though.
foo(5.5)
5
foo(5e5)
50000
foo(5)
5
foo(“bob”)
Errors
foo(“5”)
Errors

28. Return Type Constraints
sub foo(Int $a --> Int) {
return $a * 2;
}
Return types can have constraints
added.
my Int $b = foo(5);
say $b;
10
my Rat $e = foo(5);
Errors
say foo(5);
10
$a = foo(5);
say $a
10

29. Constraints (Part 3)
sub foo(Int $a where * > 5) {
say $a;
}
Type constraints can be
combined with where clauses.
foo(6)
6
foo(6.5)
Errors
foo(5)
Errors
foo(5.5)
Errors

30. Subsets (Named Type Constraints)
subset IntOver5 of Int
where * > 5;
sub foo(IntOver5 $a) {
say $a;
}
Subset lets you name a type
constraint
You can add one or more where
clause as well.
foo(6)
6
foo(6.5)
Errors
foo(5)
Errors
foo(5.5)
Errors

31. Subsets (Multiple Types)
subset IntOrRat of Numeric
where { $_ ~~ Int|Rat};
sub foo(IntOrRat $a) {
say $a;
}
You can only constrain a
variable to one type.
But you can use subsets to allow
multiple input types.
Note you can’t use a wherever
block due to precedence for
Junctions.foo(6e5)
Errors
foo(6+i)
Errors
foo(5)
5
foo(5.5)
5.5

32. Type Captures
sub foo(::T $a, T $b ) {
say “{$a} and {$b} are type {T.perl}”
}
Type captures allow you to
capture the type of the input
and access it in the containing
block.
You can also reference it
elsewhere in the signature and
add constraints.
foo(5,6)
5 and 6 are type Int
foo(5.5,6.7)
5.5 and 6.7 are type Rat
foo(“a”,”b”)
a and b are type Str
foo(“5”,5)
Errors

33. Part 3 : Multi Call

34. Basic Multi Call
multi sub foo(Int $a) { $a; }
multi sub foo(Rat $a) {
round($a);
}
If you define a subroutine or
method as multi then the
system will pick the signature
that best matches the input
variables.
Return constraints are NOT
included in the matching.
say foo(“a”);
Errors
say foo(“1”);
Errors
say foo(5);
5
say foo(4.5);
5;

35. Constants
multi sub fib(0) {1}
multi sub fib(1) {1}
multi sub fib(UInt $f) {
fib($f-1) + fib($f-2)
}
Your type constraints can
include constants.
Note that a recursive subroutine
like this will not be very
performant.
sub fib($x) {
state @f = 1,1,*+*...*;
@f[$x];
}
say fib(1);
1
say fib(20);
10946

36. Prototypes
proto foo(Int $a,|) {*}
multi foo($a, Int $b) { $a+$b}
multi foo($a, Rat $b) {
$a+$b.denominator
}
If your subs or methods share
inputs you can declare their
constraints in the proto.
* is replaced with the code for
the final multi
| is the anonymous capture
representing the other
variables.
Note lone multi implies sub
say foo(1,1);
2
say foo(1,1.5);
3

37. Only
only sub foo($a) { $a; }
…
multi sub foo($a,$b)
{ $a ~~ $b }
Declaring a sub or method as
only will raise an Exception if
the same name is used within
the same namespace.
It’s not required but it’s good
defensive programing.
Errors

38. Use Case : MAIN
use Library;
my %*SUB-MAIN-OPTS = :named-anywhere;
multi MAIN( “action” ) {
Library::action();
}
multi MAIN( “action”, Bool :$help where ?* ) {
Library::document_action();
}
Using a Library gives you bytecode compiled data.
MAIN takes command line args and maps them to positional and associative.
%*SUB-MAIN-OPTS = :named-anywhere allows inputs types to mingle.

39. Example : App::Mi6
use v6;
use App::Mi6;
my %*SUB-MAIN-OPTS = :named-anywhere;
my $app = App::Mi6.new;
multi MAIN("version") {
say $app.^ver;
}
multi MAIN("new", $module) {
$app.cmd("new", $module);
}
multi MAIN("build") {
$app.cmd("build");
}
multi MAIN("release", Bool :$keep) {
$app.cmd("release", :$keep);
}
multi MAIN("test", *@file,
Bool :v(:$verbose), Int :j(:$jobs)) {
$app.cmd("test", @file, :$verbose, :$jobs);
}
multi MAIN("dist") { $app.cmd("dist"); }
multi MAIN("upload") {
die "`mi6 upload` is removed,
please execute `mi6 release` instead.n";
}
multi MAIN("help") { USAGE(); }
multi MAIN(:h(:$help)!) { USAGE(); }
sub USAGE {
require Pod::To::Text;
::("Pod::To::Text").render($=pod).say;
exit 1;
}

40. Bonus Slide : Operators
sub infix:<£==> ( $gbp, $usd ) { $gbp =~= ( $usd / .7862 ) }
say 100 £== 78.62; True
sub prefix:<£> ( $gbp ) { “${$gbp * .7862}” }
say £100; “$78.62”
sub postfix:<!> ( UInt $num ) { [*] (1..$num) }
say 5!; 120
sub circumfix:<FOO BAR> ( @a ) { “BAR {@a.reverse.join(‘ ’)} FOO” }
say FOO 1..5 BAR;BAR 5 4 3 2 1 FOO
sub postcircumfix:<d d> ( $year, $day ) { Date.new( “{$year}-01-01” ) + $day }
say 1970d 100 d; 1970-04-11

41. Bonus Slide : Sub / Method Traits
is assoc : Define an operators associativity (left, right, chain, list or non)
is tighter, is looser, is equiv : Define an operators precedence
is pure : Given a set of arguments will always return the same result. Do not use if you have side effects as this
can be inlined.
is export : Marks a sub as to be exported from the current namespace (you can specify when)
is rw : The return value can be assigned to directly.
is DEPRECATED : Flag your sub as deprecated, warnings will be raised if you use it
is hidden-from-backtrace : Skip this function when giving a backtrace

42. Further Reading
https://docs.perl6.org/type/Signature
https://docs.perl6.org/language/functions
https://docs.perl6.org/type/Capture
https://www.amazon.co.uk/Think-Perl-Like-Computer-Scientist/dp/1491980559/
https://www.amazon.co.uk/Perl-Deep-Dive-manipulation-concurrency/dp/178728204X/
https://www.amazon.co.uk/Learning-Perl-6-Brian-Foy/dp/149197768X/ (Preorder)

43. Questions?