1. Basic psychological process:
Learning & Remembering
Learning Objectives:
•Learning as a deliberate effort in acquiring
knowledge
•Classical conditioning approach
•Operating learning: Cognitive & Social learning
•Types of learning curves
•Principle of reinforcement in learning process
•Various schedules of reinforcement
•Limitations in learning and behavioural
modification.

2. Introduction
• Learning is “ any relatively permanent change in
behaviour that occurs as a result of experience”
• Learning can’t be observed or seen, it can only be seen
in the change in behaviour
Now learning can be :-
Behaviour potential
(Drugs)
Permanent
(word processing)
Natural
(Child)
Direct
(Typing course)
Indirect
(out of other’s
experience)

3. Theories of learning
Operant
conditioning
Classical
conditioning
Cognitive
learning
Social
Learning

4. A) Classical Conditioning
•
•
It’s a ‘Cause n Effect’ relationship between ‘one stimulus and one response’.
The most well known experiment were conducted by I.P. Pavlov with dogs
and he established stimulus-response (S-R) connection or habbit.
Food
Unconditioned
stimulus
Bell
Conditioned
stimulus
Unconditioned
response
Response
Food
Unconditioned
stimulus
Bell
Conditioned
stimulus
Conditional
response

5. • Under certain situations, classical conditioning does
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•
•
explain human behaviour.
For ex: if someone is always reprimanded by his boss
when asked ‘to step in the boss’s office’, he may become
nervous whenever asked to come to the office of his
boss, because of this association.
Since classical conditioning relates to involuntary
responses, it does not explain situations where people
rationally and objectively choose a course of action.
Also, managers are more interested in voluntary and free
responses from their workers rather than involuntary and
reflex responses.

6. B) Operant Conditioning
• An alternate approach to classical conditioning was proposed by
•
B.F Skinner, known as Operant Conditioning in order to explain
more complex behaviour of humans.
It includes voluntary change in the behaviour and learning occurs
as consequence of such change.
It is a relationship between
consequence-behaviour.
Behaviour is a function of its
consequences (results
or outcomes)
It is also known as
Reinforcement theory.
Behaviour or job performance is not
a function of inner thoughts, feelings,
emotions or perceptions
but
Is keyed to the nature of the outcome of that behaviour.
If it is positive, employee feel motivated and vice-versa.
For ex: working hard and getting the promotion will probably
cause the person to keep working hard in the future.

7. C) Cognitive Learning
• Cognition is the act of knowing an item of information
•
•
•
•
and this knowledge affects the behaviour of the person
so that information provides cognitive cues towards the
expected goal.
Based on the experience of Tolman.
Using rats in his laboratory shows that they learned to
run through a complicated maze towards their goal of
food.
It was observed that rats developed expectations at
every choice point in the maze.
They learned that this cognitive cues will ultimately lead
to food.

8. • In organisational setting, Tolman’s ideas , some training
•
programs were designed to strengthen the relationship
between cognitive cues such as supervision, job
procedures and worker expectations such as monetary
and other rewards.
It was believed that worker would learn to be more
productive by building a relationship between following
directions and procedures and expectancy of monetary
rewards for these efforts.

9. D) Social Learning
• It integrates the cognitive and operant approaches to
•
•
•
•
learning.
It recognizes that Learning does not take place only
because of environmental stimuli (classical or operant)
or individual determinism (cognitive) but is a blend of
both.
It also emphasize that people acquire learning the
behaviors by observing or imitating others in a social
setting.
In addition, learning can also be gained by discipline and
self-control.
Inner desire to acquire knowledge irrespective of
external rewards or consequences.

10. Implications for performance/learning
Importance for a manager:
A) Ability: to get the able fit for the job there are various
steps to get :
• Effective selection process.
• Promotion and transfer decisions affecting individuals
already in the organisation’s.
• It can be improved by fine-tuning the job to better match
an incumbent’s abilities.
B) Biographical characteristics
C) Learning

11. Motivation

12. Motivation
• Motivation is derived from motive that is defined as an active form of
•
desire, craving or need that must be satisfied.
All motives are directed towards goals.
MEANING OF MOTIVATION :
Motivation is derived from the Latin word
‘movere’ which means ‘to move’ or
‘to energize’ or ‘to activate’.
NATURE OF MOTIVATION:
Based on motives
Affected by motivating
Goal directed behavior
Related to satisfaction
Person is motivated in totality
Complex process
Unsatisfied need
Tension or
disequilibrium
A need is
Action, movement
and internal
state that
or behaviour
makes
certain
Goal
outcomes
attractive.
Feedback, possible
modification of
unsatisfied need

13. Sources/Concepts of motivation
1. Positive motivation:
• Praise and credit for work done.
• Sincere interest in the welfare of subordinates.
• Delegation of authority and responsibility to
subordinates.
• Participation of subordinates in the decision making
process.
2. Negative motivation
• Use of force, power, fear and threats.
• Punishments.

14. 3. Extrinsic (external) motivation
• Primarily are of financial nature
• It includes higher pay, fringe benefits such as retirement
plans, stock options, profit sharing schemes, paid
vacations, health and medical insurance.
4. Intrinsic motivation
• It stems from feelings of achievement and
accomplishment and is concerned with the state of selfactualization.
• The satisfaction of accomplishing something motivates
he employee further so that this motivation is selfgenerated and is independent of financial rewards.

15. Classification of Motives:
 Primary Motives
 General Motive
 Secondary Motives

16. Primary Motives:
 A motive is termed as a primary motive when
it satisfies both the criteria : it is learned as
well as it is physiologically based. It is not
earned, and it is physiological based.
 all human beings have same primary motives
 Example: Hunger, thirst, sleep, avoidance of
pain

17. General Motives:
 A motive is considered to be a general motive if it
is not learned, but is also not based on
physiological need. general motives stimulate
tension within the individual. They are also called
“stimulus motives”
 The motives of curiosity, manipulation and motive
to remain active
 The affection motive

18. Secondary Motives:
 It is a motive that has been learned or
acquired over time





The power motive
The achievement motive
The affiliation motive
The security motive
The status motive

19. The Power Motive
 The person’ drives to gain power and
prove himself superior to others.

20. Achievement Motive
 The achievement motive is a person’ desire to

perform excellently or to handle complex or
competitive situations successfully.
David C. McClelland
Profile of High achievers:
 Moderate degree of risk
 Need for precise feedback
 Satisfaction with accomplishment
 Total dedication towards task

21. Affiliation Motive
 Employees especially those at the lower
levels of the organizational hierarchy,
have a strong desire to belong to and be
accepted by other employees or the
whole group

22. Security Motive
 Security motive is based largely on fear
and is avoidance-oriented i.e., people try
to avoid insecurity rather than attempt to
achieve security

23. Status Motive
 Status is defined as the rank a person holds
relative to others within a group.
The
status motive is extremely important

24. Theories of Motivation:Categories of motivation theories are:A group of theories that
A group of theories that
places emphasis on needs
places emphasis on needs
that motivate people
that motivate people
A category of theories
A category of theories
that explain how
that explain how
employees select
employees select
behaviours to meet their
behaviours to meet their
needs
needs

25. Content Theories of Work Motivation
•
•
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Maslow’s hierarchy of needs
McGregor’s X Theory & Y theory.
Herzberg’s Two-factor theory
McClelland’s Acquire needs theory
Alderfer’s ERG theory

26. Maslow’s Motivation Theory

27. Maslow theory – the explanation
• Lower-end needs are the priority needs, which must
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•
•
be satisfied before higher-order need are activated.
Needs are satisfied in sequence.
When a need is satisfied, it declines in importance
and the next need becomes dominant.
To motivate an individual one must know where that
person is in the hierarchy and focus on satisfying at
or above that level.

28. Implications of Maslow’s theory in the
workplace
• Not everyone is motivated in the same way.
• Motivation and need satisfaction are
•
anticipatory in nature.
Managers must seek to guide and direct
employee behaviour to meet the
organizational needs and individual needs
simultaneously.

29. McGregor’s X & Y theory
• Theory X :
This theory assumes that most people prefer to be directed, are not
interested in assuming responsibility & want safety above all.
Accompanying this philosophy is the belief that work is inherently
distasteful to most people & people are motivated by money &
the threat of punishment.
Managers who accept Theory X assumptions, attempt to structure,
control & closely supervise their subordinates.

30. • Theory Y:
This theory assumes that people are not by nature lazy
& unreliable. Man can be self-directed & creative at
work, if properly motivated.
Managers who accept this theory, attempt to help their
employees mature, by exposing them to
progressively less control, allowing them to assume
more self-control.
Employees are able to achieve the satisfaction of social
esteem & self-actualization needs with this kind of
environment.

31. Herzberg’s Two-factor Theory
Hygiene Factors
Hygiene Factors
••Workingconditions
Working conditions
••Payand security
Pay and security
••Companypolicies
Company policies
••Supervisors
Supervisors
••Interpersonal
Interpersonal
relationships
relationships
Motivators
Motivators
••Achievement
Achievement
••Recognition
Recognition
••Responsibility
Responsibility
••Workitself
Work itself
••Personalgrowth
Personal growth
Satisfaction
No satisfaction
Motivation factors
Motivation factors
Hygiene factors
Hygiene factors
No dissatisfaction
Dissatisfaction

32. Herzberg’s theory - explanation
• Hygiene factors involve the presence or absence of job
•
dissatisfiers. When the hygiene factors are present, the
individual is not dissatisfied; however when they are absent
the individual is dissatisfied. In any case hygiene factors to
not motivate.
Motivators are factors that influence satisfaction and
consequently motivate the person from within as he or she
achieve the higher-level needs of achievement,
recognition, and personal growth.

33. Implication of Herzberg’s theory
• Providing the hygiene factors will eliminate employee
dissatisfaction bur will not motivate workers to high levels of
achievement. Recognition, responsibility, and the opportunity
to achieve personal growth will promote satisfaction and
employee performance.
• The benefit of this theory has implication for the effect of
company systems and job design (how work is arranged and
how much employees control their work) on employee
satisfaction and performance.

34. Alderfer’s ERG Theory:




Clayton Alderfer : proposed a continuum of
needs rather than a hierarchy
Existence needs – These are associated
with
the
survival
and
physiological
wellbeing of an individual.
Relatedness
needs
–
These
needs
emphasize the significance of social and
interpersonal relationship.
Growth needs – These needs are related to
a person’s inner desire for personal growth
and development.

35. • Acc. To Alderfer : a person’s background or
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•
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cultural environment may cause the
relatedness needs to predominate over
unfulfilled existence needs.
It is also possible that intensity of growth
needs will increase in the degree to which
they are satisfied.
Limitations of content theories :
They do not explain the complexities involved
in the process of motivation.

36. Self-actualization
and fulfillment
Motivation
factors
The Relationship between Maslow,s
Hierarchy of Needs, Herzberg’s TwoFactor Theory and Alderfer’s ERG Needs
Esteem and status
Work itself Achievement
Possibility of growth
Responsibility
Advancement
Recognition
Status
Relations with supervisors
Peer relations
Relations with subordinates
Quality of supervisions
Safety and
security
Physiological
needs
Hygiene
factors
Belongings and
social needs
Growth
Company policy
and administration
Job security
Working conditions
Pay
Relatedness
Existence

37. The Porter-Lawler Model
 Porter and Lawler tried to explore the
complex relationship between
motivation, satisfaction and
performance, and pointed out that efforts
put in by an employee did not directly result
in performance.
 it gives a comprehensive explanation of
work motivation.

38. • Acc to porter Lawler model performance is
dependent on three factors :
– An employee should have the desire to perform
i.e. he must feel motivated
– Motivation alone cannot ensure successful
performance of a a task: he should have the
necessary skills and abilities.
– The employee should also have the clear
perception of his role in the org. and accurate
knowledge of the job requirement.

39. 8. Perceived
Equitable
Rewards
4. Abilities &
Traits
1. Value of
Reward
3. Effort
7.a Intrinsic
Rewards
6. Performance
9. Satisfaction
2. Perceived Effort
Reward Probability
5. Role
Perception
7. Extrinsic
Rewards

40. • Effort: the amount of energy expended by an
individual to perform a specific task. Effort depends
upon the attractiveness of the reward and the
probability that his efforts will lead to the reward.
• Performance : it is not necessary that the effort will
result in performance. Performance in turn is
depended on the abilities and skills and the way the
individual perceives his role.

41. important variables in the model
• Reward : employee is rewarded acc. To
•
performance. Reward can be intrinsic or extrinsic.
– intrinsic rewards : are those a person grants to
himself for having performed a task well
– Extrinsic rewards : are the rewards given to the
employee by the organization
Satisfaction: depends upon whether the actual
reward offered fall short of, match or exceed what the
individual perceives as an equitable level of reward.

42. The Process Theories of Work Motivation
 The process theories of motivation deal with “How” of
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
Motivation.
It deal with the cognitive antecedents (preceding factor)
that go into motivation or effort, and more specifically,
with the way the cognitive antecedents of an individual
relate to one another.
The theories are
 Vroom's’ Expectancy Theory of Motivation
 Equity Theory
 Goal-Setting Theory

43. The Vroom’s Expectancy Theory
• A process theory simply states that people
are motivated to work when they believe that
they can achieve things they want from their
jobs.
• Such expectation depend on their ability to
perform the task, given their effort and the
attractiveness of the reward.
• Or,
• it is based on the belief that motivation is
determined by the nature of the reward
people expect to get as a result of their job
performance.

44. Theories of Work Motivation
Instrumentalities
(performance-reward relationship )
Expectancy
(hard work)
First level
outcomes
Outcome 1
Motivational
Force F
Second level
Outcomes
Outcome 1 a
Outcome 1 b
Outcome2a
Outcome2
Outcome2b
Outcome2c

45. Equity Theory :
J. Stacy Adams
 This theory states that the degree of equity
or inequity perceived by an employee with
reference to his work situation plays a
major role in work performance and
satisfaction.
 Employees generally compares their output
– input ratio with that of others. If they
perceives the ratio of their outcomes and
inputs are equal to that of their peers and
others , it will result in equity

46.  Equity theory represented
schematically as:
Person’s Outcomes = Other’s Outcomes
Person’s inputs
Other’s inputs
 Inequity is represented as follows:
Person’s Outcomes < Other’s Outcomes
Person’s inputs
Other’s inputs
(or)
Person’s Outcomes > Other’s Outcomes
Person’s inputs
Other’s inputs

47.  Various referent comparison used by employees:

Self-inside - comparing ones experience in the
present position with the experiences of those
holding a similar position in same org.

Self-outside - comparing ones experience in the
present position with the experiences of those
holding a similar position in another org

Other-inside- comparing ones experience in the
present position with the experiences of those
holding a a different position but belonging to the
same org.

Other-outside - comparing ones experience in the
present position with the experiences of those
holding a different position in another org

48.  After comparing his position with that of his referent, if an
employee perceives an inequity, he will make certain choices.
The choices that an employee is likely to make are as described
below:
 Change in inputs: he may reduce the effort he puts in a
particular job
 Change in outcomes: the employee may act an in
a manner that brings about change in the outcome
or end result.
 Distort perceptions of self : the employee may distort
the perception he held about his own performance
 Distort perception of others : an employee may change
the way he perceives others jobs, positions and productivity.
 choose a different referent

leave the field

49. Motivating Performance
Through Goal Setting:
• A goal can be defined as the desired consequence of an
action.
Performance enhancement through goal setting:
• Goals should be specific
• Goals should be difficult and challenging
• Goals must be owned and accepted
• Goals must have a specific time frame
• Goals should be measurable

50. Barriers to Effective Goal
Setting
 Lack of top management-support
 Lack of Communication
 Content of the goal
 Technical incompetence

51. Application of Goal Setting to Organizational System
Performance
 The theory of goal setting is usually implemented
through a system called Management by
Objectives, popularly known as MBO.
 MBO refers to the process of setting goals and
objectives through the participation of the
management and the workers.

52. The Process of MBO
 Consensus on key goals and
objectives
 Sketch a plan of action
 Control of behavior
 Periodic appraisal and reviews