PUP 420 Theory of Urban Design Historical Perspecti

PUP 420: Theory of
Urban Design
Historical Perspectives:
Siena, Italy
Part of understanding the basics of
urban design is to understand the
history of designing our cities.
Two basic city forms – organic and
geometric – emerged very early in
Western civilizations.
Organic cities are likely to have been
the more ancient of the two, having
arisen through chance and
accretion. Accretion means that
these settlements grew where paths
became streets, and villages
merged into towns and then cities.
Organic cities developed around geographic features that were
crucial to trade or defense, such as regional crossroads, safe
harbors, river crossings, access to mountain passes, and so
forth.

Miletus, origin of Miletian plan
Palace Quarter, Babylon
The geometric form, on the other
hand, was planned – purposely
and self-consciously designed.
This is where we get our grid
system, where streets are at right
angles and form blocks.
Most early geometric cities had
specific places for religion and
commerce. And most early
societies were concerned about
controlling access to their city for
the purpose of defense.
Piazza del Campo, Siena
Villingen, Germany
The Middle Ages were shaped by
warfare and military considerations,
leading to things like building city
walls.
Public spaces became associated
with religious structures and, later,

commerce, as the church plaza
became the marketplace.
During the Middle Ages, we also
started building secular public
plazas – these are plazas that are
not associated with a church or
religion. Piazza del Campo in
Sienna was one of the first of these
secular plazas.
Pienza, Italy
Palmanova, Italy
Next, we move ahead to the
Renaissance, which was roughly
the 15th – 17th Centuries. (There’s
no consensus about the exact
years.)
During this time, classical architecture
and planning served as precedents,
as neo-classical architecture began
to be built. This was stemming from
a renewed interest in art,
architecture, literature, and so forth.
This coincides with the emerging
“humanist” view – meaning that
people were looking at Ancient
Rome and Ancient Greece for

inspiration and seeing the value in
classical learning.
Pope Sixtus V’s Plan of Rome
The Baroque period was roughly the
16th – 17th Centuries, sometimes
grouped into the Renaissance time
period.
During the Baroque period, we built
straight avenues with clear lines of
sight. Our cities also had radial and
diagonal patterns defined by focal
points. This is largely because the
planners were military engineers,
interested in efficiency.
During this time, cities were also
starting to be confronted with the
challenges of swelling populations –
and the consequences of this on
health, light, and air.
Paris, France
Baroque principles dominated urban design through the 19th

Century, with several concepts that have been particularly
important through modern times.
First, we have purposely shaped public spaces, where we still
remain interested today in actively shaping our cities through
design. Next, we use focal points and vistas
as organizing devices for our cities
– they help us orient ourselves.
And third, the idea of having uniform
facades (streetfronts that look
similar) is something that has its
origins in the Baroque period.
Historical
Perspectives:
New Amsterdam
Savannah, Georgia
Here in the early days of building
cities in the U.S., we became
more concerned about what was
logical, pragmatic, and efficient.
We made extensive use of the
grid, partially because the grid
exemplified democratic ideals –
dividing up a city into equal
blocks.
There was also an agrarian ideal,
where we saw farming as a

noble way of life and we had a
seemingly unlimited supply of
land. For a while, we had a
symbiotic relationship between
city and countryside.
Historical
Perspectives:
Then came… the Industrial
Revolution, where factories,
which were located mostly in
cities, needed people to work in
them.
Simultaneously, improvements in
machinery meant that fewer
people were needed to work on
farms.
This resulted in a mass rural-to-
urban migration (urbanization),
leading to some very unhealthy
places.
Tenements, New York

During the period after the Industrial Revolution (the first
couple decades of the 1900s), we saw that people were
reacting to the widely held perceptions of the
“unhealthy” city and its overcrowding.
Mariemont, Ohio
During this time, we started to build
lower density developments in
the form of garden cities and
suburbs. These were built on a
small scale, with cottage-type
homes, both detached and semi-
detached. The streets were
curvilinear with dead-end streets
and lots of trees.
We place Modernism in the time period of
1923 – 1948. (Some Modernist buildings
were designed after this time.)
With Modernism, the idea was to have high
density at the periphery of the city, where
people would be connected through good
public transport. The design aesthetic was
to have starkly functional, clean lines.

People were to live in long, straight living
units surrounded by collective open space.
Streets were to be straight or only
modestly curved.
All of this was a reaction against Garden
Cities.
Seagram Building, New York
Anywhere, U.S.A.
After World War II and through the
1970s, many things were going
on… We had a great demand
for housing, created by the Baby
Boom and soldiers returning
from war. Much of this housing
was in the form of newly built
suburbs. We were building for
good vehicular access, with
pedestrians as an afterthought.
We also started extensively
using zoning, creating
environments of only one use
(such as residential-only areas).
Urban Design Paradigms:

Out of all of this has emerged two design
paradigms (or schools of thought):
The first is Empiricism – regressive
utopianism. This means looking to the
present and the past for design
inspiration.
The second is Rationalism – progressive
utopianism. This is an attempt at
inventing futures based on assumptions
and proposals for new technologies and
social orders.
Welwyn Ad
Empiricism:
The primary precedents of
Empiricism were concepts that
were perceived to be working well
at the time or to have worked well
in the past. This included models
such as:
The Medieval City (from which we
developed the so-called New
Towns)

The Baroque City (which inspired
the City Beautiful movement)
The small country town (which
inspired Garden Cities)
Medieval Town
City Beautiful:
The City Beautiful design
movement had a heavy reliance
on precedents with rational
thought. This movement was
the major paradigm for civic
design of municipal or
governmental sectors of cities
during the first three decades of
the 20th Century.
World’s Columbian Exposition
Its basic elements included:
•  Axial avenues terminating at focal points;
•  Grand plazas;
•  Wide streets; and
•  Monumental buildings (ideally, these were classical in
design).
Garden City:

The Garden City concept was originated
by Ebenezer Howard. This was a highly
utopian concept with considerable
rational thought behind it. As it was
actually carried out, it was more down to
Earth than the initial concept.
Briefly, a Garden City has a city center
surrounded by neighborhoods with
industry and farmland on the periphery.
These were meant to be well treed and
connected by a greenbelt, and were to
have a small population. Howard
wanted to blend city life with country
living.
Conceptual Diagram
Neo Empiricism:
This means “new” Empiricism.
It’s a response to the
perceived limitations of
Garden Cities and other
models. It still reflects the
past, but is less hindered by
some of the early romantic
notions.
New Urbanism is the example
that has gained the most

attention. This movement
looks back to towns of the
early 20th Century for design
principles.
Rationalism:
•  Modernists perceived empirical models to be highly
romantic and irrelevant to the modern world.
•  Rationalist urban design principles combine
progressive (if sometimes poorly reasoned) social
organization with geometric shapes for physical form.
Brasilia
•  Modernists embraced large
cities, modern technology,
tall buildings, and cars.
•  They embraced change,
which they saw as
necessary and positive.
Rationalism:
Two major analogies emerged in
Rationalism:
•  City as machine
•  City as organic, living form

When we think about Rationalism,
images that come to mind are slab
or tower buildings, which are often
situated in an area surrounded by
open space. These places are
linked by highways.
Radiant City
Brasilia
Rationalism:
An example of Rationalism is Corbusier’s Radiant City,
which was applied in Brasilia.
Overall, the greatest application of Rationalism has been
in mass housing, especially public/social housing.
Brasilia Radiant City
Utility and Limitations
of Paradigms:
•  Each paradigm has
successes and failures, but
they’re criticized for being too
simplistic and not
considering the cultural and
physical contexts of their
communities.

•  We’re still not clear about
when and where they work.
But we know we need a
greater range of models –
and richer, better ones. Science City, Hugh Ferris
Garden City
How Paradigms can be more useful:
The next generation of paradigms
should recognize that problems
have changed. These new
paradigms should be clear about
what problems they do, and do
not, address in various social,
cultural, and terrestrial contexts.
They need to have more layers,
each layer dealing with a specific
issue, such as transportation,
distribution of parks, etc. Merging
these layers will lead to trade-offs
between solving one problem well
and another problem well.
Hurricane Katrina, New Orleans
Security barrier, Washington, DC
Government and Planning
For the purposes of urban design, we’re concerned with two
kinds

of societies: autocratic ones and democratic ones.
In autocratic societies we have centralized planning. The
leader’s opinion matters more than anything else and
planning/design decisions are not subject to control from
citizens. This means that these kinds of societies can build
large-scale projects because there are no public meetings,
no design review, etc.
Examples:
Haussmann’s Paris
Via della Conciliazione (Rome) under Mussolini
Government and Planning
Democratic societies, on the other hand, have
legislated planning – meaning that we enact laws to
govern how we engage in planning, rather than
yielding to an autocratic leader’s whims. In
democratic societies, decisions are usually made by a
team of professionals and stakeholders, and these
decisions are subject to control from citizens and the
market. The design scale varies in democratic
societies.
Examples:
Most, but not all, developments in the U.S.
Example: Via della Conciliazione
The Via della Conciliazione is one of the most hated
streets in Rome. Between 1936 and 1950, twenty-two
Medieval and Renaissance buildings and dozens of
housing units were torn down. In their place, Mussolini’s

grand vision was constructed – the Via della
Conciliazione. It was completed in 1950.
This is before its
construction. You can see
buildings here in the center
of the photograph that will
later be demolished to
make way for this grand
road.
Via della Conciliazione
Today, the view as you walk along the street is awe-
inspiring. St. Peter’s dome is framed by sculpted angels
on the roof of the Basilica. The piazza (plaza) can be seen
from far away. Walking towards the Basilica, your mind
and eyes have a chance to get used to the scale and to
adjust slowly to the magnificence of it all.
Via della Conciliazione
So what’s the problem? This stunning view – the ability to
adjust to the scale of it all – is not what was originally intended
with St. Peter’s Basilica. Instead, imagine how it must have
been if you were walking through the narrow, dark streets of
Rome and then stumbled out to see the Basilica, as if
appearing out of nowhere.
That experience – that
moment of revelation –
was exactly what was
intended. Being prepared
was never the point. The

point was to be
overwhelmed. Yet the Via
della Conciliazione no
longer allows this.
Other Autocratic Examples
Here we have the beautiful Medieval core of the Eastern
European city of Tallinn, Estonia. This part of the city
developed organically over a long period of time.
Other Autocratic Examples
This is an image from the same city. Outside of the
Medieval core, there are slabs of bland, concrete
buildings that were erected while Tallinn was under the
control of the Soviets. This is the autocratic influence of
design on this particular city.
Autocratic Developments in
Democratic Societies?
There are also some examples of autocratic developments
within democratic societies, such as large-scale housing
developments and company towns. (This is a mural of
Pullman, Illinois, after the Pullman rail company.)
End of Unit 2.

RESEARCH METHODS
Final Paper Assignment
RESEARCH PROPOSAL
In a 10-12 page paper (excluding title page or References
section), detail a future proposal for research on a topic of
interest in social science. Your research can involve any
original data that you could possibly collect using an
experimental or survey approach. This proposed research must
be feasible. (For example, if you are proposing to interview a
group of people, this group will have to exist – you cannot say
that you would like to research life on Mars). If it is not
deemed to be a practical, do-able research project, you will
receive no credit for the proposal. Earlier written assignments
as well as a detailed reading of your textbook (particularly
chapter 1 and the entire ‘Citing Sources…’ book) should assist
you in making the proposal a quality product!
The proposal will contain the following elements:
1. Title Page, running head, abstract
2. Short Introduction: Identify the topic, your thesis statement,
and give an explanation of why it is important (parts of
assignment 1 and 4)
3. Background and Need: Introduction and Framing of the
Research Issue/Problem
a. Literature Review: What do we as a field already know about
the topic? (assignment 4)
i. In-text citations are especially important in this part
b. The current study: How does the study you are proposing
address a hole in the literature? (you might have a very brief
summary of your methodology here, which will lead directly
into the next section…)

4. Objectives: What is the point/goal of your study?
a. Research Questions: What are you specifically trying to
learn? This should be a very detailed question that is more
specific than your overall topic.
5. Method: How are you going to answer your research
question(s)?
a. Subjects for Study: Who or what will you collect data on?
How did you choose them? This should include a detailed
discussion of your sampling strategy or selection process. This
is also the most likely place to address ethics considerations for
your participants (though sometimes elsewhere). (part of
assignment 1)
b. Measurement: What are the key variables in your study and
how will you define and measure them? (assignment 3)
c. Data Collection Methods: How will you actually collect your
data? What method will you use and how will you go about
getting the data from/about individuals/groups/etc.? Sometimes
this is called ‘Procedure(s)’ where you spell out step-by-step
what you expect the participants to do/how you will actually
obtain your data from them
d. Analysis: What is the thing you are trying to learn and what
data will tell you that information? If you had data, what would
you do to get the answers to your research questions? (This
section can be pretty short, but you should have a plan of how
you will analyze the data once you have it and what kind of
analyses will give you the answers to your questions)
6. Schedule: Describe your timeline for conducting this study.
How long do you estimate it will take for you to prepare your
materials, contact participants and collect your data, clean and
analyze the data, write up your research paper, etc.?
7. Budget: How much money would you need to complete this
study and what will you spend it on? List each item separately
with an estimated cost, then calculate a total cost for the project

overall. Ballpark figures are acceptable
8. Significance/Conclusion: Why should others care about your
research? What impact will it have?
a. This is the very last place where you can make the case for
why your study matters – these should be strong statements the
sum up the research idea and need for the project overall
9. References Cited: Minimum of 10 scholarly, peer-reviewed
research articles required
a. You may have as many additional references as you would
like, however please be sure they are reputable, respected,
scholarly sources – not Wikipedia or someone’s blog
b. Each of these citations should also be properly cited ‘in-text’,
meaning in all the other sections of your paper where you state
facts will need to give credit to the original author(s) of those
facts by an in-text citation
Keep in mind that proper formatting and grammar are
important!! You will need to do several rounds of revising and
editing to create a good final paper, so please have early drafts
done well in advance of the deadline to give yourself a chance
to polish it up before you turn in the final copy to me for
grading.
Hicks 2
Running head: LITERATURE REVIEW
Literature Review
9 April 2020

Texting 911 – An Alternative and Inclusive Approach to
Emergencies
Typically, nobody wants to be in a situation requiring
emergency services; however, sometimes, one is in the wrong
place at the wrong time. People face different dangerous
situations on American soil, each requesting help in the ways
available to them. Technological advancements allow for
relaying of information to and from one end to another within
seconds, and 911 services have come a long way. Over the
years, researchers have been evaluating the necessary steps
towards making it easier for all Americans to provide
information or get help through 911 services, highlighting the
current gaps in service provision and their potential solutions.
This literature review attempts to show that to avail help or get
information from both abled and disabled members of the
community, domestication of 911 services is crucial.
Impact of texting 911
In a study conducted by Yabe (2016), the author notes that
people highly willing to pay (WTP) for texting emergency
services have characteristics like, having interests in an
emergency texting service, being part of campus emergencies,
relatively old, having a higher per capita income compared to
those less willing, and largely Americans not Internationals.
The force behind showing interest in emergency texting services
is securing their personal safety (Yabe, 2016). The WTP for
emergency texting services is not particularly prominent with a
specific set of individuals, that is, people with or without
hearing loss (Yabe, 2016). The author finds out that while 89%
of the respondents have interests in emergency texting services,
52% prefer calling without alerting the offenders.

While still reviewing the impact of texting 911, Sheldon (2017)
brings the dimension of perception of danger, meaning that
respondents perceive warning messages sent through texts with
much seriousness, unlike those sent via social media. Perception
of a threat by a message recipient is critical for their next
course of action. Respondents weigh in on the gravity of the
impending danger before choosing a medium of communication
to alert others, and in this case, a text message for threats they
perceive as less serious, and a phone call for more serious c ases
(Sheldon, 2017). Sheldon (2017) further clarifies that to prevent
disregard of emergency messages, the sender needs to include
an additional statement describing the seriousness of a situation
in the emergency text alerts. While comparing the percepti ons
of warnings sent via synchronous and asynchronous modes of
communication, it appears that people treat synchronous
communication with a heightened level of urgency (Sheldon,
2017).
Small sample size effect
In all studies, the findings relate directly to the sample size
used by a researcher. A large sample size brings more variables
to the study, unlike a small sample size. Boatright-Horowitz,
Olick & Amaral (2004) note in their study that by using fewer
male than female participants, the study fails to reveal gender
differences in the participants’ reactions to different domestic
violence scenes. This important aspect of the study becomes
less effective in making deductions from the findings. The
authors acknowledge that using larger sample size, as the
public, would provide better gender effects for their study
(Boatright-Horowitz, 2004).
Yabe (2016) also conducts a study with a small sample size, and
later admitting that with a larger sample, the overall university
population’s total values of texting emergencies would have
been higher than his findings. Collecting data from just one
university leaves a lot to speculate, being that different
dynamics come into play from one university to another, public

or private university, and one state to another (Yabe, 2016). The
small sample size also provides an assumption that many people
own mobile phones, and this may not apply to all areas within
the country. The small sample size effect creates a lot of
unanswered questions within a study and fails to address other
correlating issues that affect the study both directly and
indirectly.
Fear to call 911
Many emergency situations go unreported due to various
reasons, one being fear to call 911. Most governments
encourage citizens to share information with security enforcers
to help themselves willingly and others in need, however, this
mostly fails to work. For instance, overdose witnesses are
unwilling to call 911 in situations where the overdose occurred
in a private setting (Jakubowski, 2017). The fear of police
involvement or arrests in private settings is one of the
underlying reasons why people fear to call 911 because of their
reluctancy to endanger those close to them (Jakubowski, 2017).
This fear may lead to preventable deaths as the victim remains
unattended to by emergency professionals or gets help when it
is too late. Jakubowski et al. (2017) outline that people fear to
call 911 when the victim is a relative, compared to when
dealing with strangers
Boatright-Horowitz, Olick & Amaral (2004) provide
participants with a series of scenes with violent and non-violent
abusive behavior seeking justification for calling 911.
Justifying whether a 911 call was necessary or not shows the
willingness for a person to seek help from emergency service
providers or not. In scene 5, there are forms of abusive behavior
despite no verbal threats or physical abuse, but only 13% saw
the justification of a 911 call (Boatright-Horowitz, 2004). From
their study, this shows that the perception of a situation may
make a witness willing or less willing to call 911 even if there
is evidence of abuse. A witness may fear to call 911 depending
on how serious or less serious they think an offense has been

committed.
Domestication of the 911 system
Tailoring emergency systems to assist with all situations may
look like a difficult or unattainable task, but it becomes
necessary when some citizens are unable to access help due to
discardable restrictions. Emergency preparedness experts
encourage communication via text messaging during disasters
because making non-essential calls may prevent 911 calls from
getting through (Sheldon, 2017). Sheldon (2017) explains that
natural disasters may interfere with cell phone towers, creating
a gap during a crisis that needs alternative forms of
communication by emergency services providers. The author
further proposes the use of social media for reaching a wider
audience during disasters since the platforms allow sending of
videos of photos that may guide people on what to do during
disasters.
911 resists domestication due to the inexperience of most users
with its use as a type of communication (Ellcessor, 2019). 911
has some laid of guidelines that call-takers use to assess
emergency calls made to them to provide the next course of
action to the caller and first respondents. Ellcessor (2019)
points out that some calls do not meet the laid-out expectations
of emergency situations leading to miscommunications with
call-takers. The structure of 911 requires a person to describe
and justify their need for emergency services (Ellcessor, 2019).
The effect of 911’s resistance to domestication is that it makes
it difficult for all to callers to conform to its expected
communicative structure, denying services to non-native-
English speakers and disabled callers (Ellcessor, 2019). The
Americans with Disabilities Act (1990) that required 911
centers to provide direct (TTY) access to their services was one
of the steps towards the domestication of the 911 system
(Ellcessor, 2019). The author asserts that the launch of text-to-
911 services could help change infrastructural dimensions of
911 through emerging user practices and the inclusion of people
with disabilities in a mainstream format.

Yabe (2016) shares the directives issued by the Federal
Communications Commission (FCC) that all Commercial
Mobile Radio Services (CMRS) providers and covered text
providers must support text-to-911 in all areas within the
country where Public Safety Answering Points (PSAPs) can
receive texts. Subsequently, FCC directed CMRS and covered
text providers to include an automatic bounce-back message
when the text-to-911 services were unavailable to users for
them to look for alternative methods of seeking assistance
(Yabe, 2016). Proposals for real-time text (RTT) to replace text
telephone (TTY) devices for the deaf and hard of hearing callers
is an efficient transition for text-to-911 services (Yabe, 2016).
Conclusion
Research into the impact of implementing text-to-911 to
enable a wider reach for emergency services brings i ts
challenges and solutions as the country moves forward. Access
to emergency services is every citizen’s right, therefore
necessary designs into 911 services that make it possible to
reach both people with and without disabilities in times of a
crisis increase the chances of saving more lives. These radical
changes, like moving away from TTY to RTT, are steps towards
the goal of domestication of 911 services. The research
community should continue exploring more options by using
larger sample sizes and adding more variables to their research
methods to come up with a bigger picture that addresses most, if
not all, the underlying issues that need fixing. Emergency
service providers play important roles before, during, and after
the 911 calls, making sure each citizen gets access to their
urgent needs.
References
Boatright-Horowitz, S. L. (2004). Calling 911 during episodes
of domestic abuse: What justifies a call for help? Journal of

Criminal Justice, 32(1), 89–92.
DOI:10.1016/j.jcrimjus.2003.10.007
Ellcessor, E. (2019). Call If You Can, Text If You Can't: A
Dismediation of U.S. Emergency Communication
Infrastructure. International journal of communication, 13,
4487–4506.
Jakubowski, A. K.-R. (2017). Knowledge of the 911 Good
Samaritan Law and 911-calling behavior of overdose
witnesses. Substance Abuse, 39(2), 233–238.
DOI:10.1080/08897077.2017.1387213
Sheldon, P. (2017). Emergency Alert Communications on
College Campuses: Understanding Students’ Perceptions of the
Severity of a Crisis and Their Intentions to Share the Alert With
Parents and Friends. Western Journal of Communication, 82(1),
100-116. DOI:10.1080/10570314.2017.1308005
Yabe, M. (2016). Students, Faculty, and Staff's Willingness to
Pay for Emergency Texting. Journal of Applied Security
Research, 11(4), 437-449.
DOI:10.1080/19361610.2016.1210486
Article #1
Citation: Ellcessor, E. (2019). Call If You Can, Text If You
Can't: A Dismediation of U.S. Emergency Communication
Infrastructure. International journal of communication
Main Points:
The consumer may notice that 911 is becoming more familiar
with technology as well as a enhancement for the disadvantaged

users that they will not question what took as long. Text-to-911
is using disabilities as a “preoccupation” or used to help
promote the program. 911 emergency communication system
traditional methods have failed the consumer expectations due
to dropped calls, delayed reverse lookups, etc. which may have
led to tragic events.
Research Questions/Purpose: The purpose of this article is to
explain that the change to the traditional 911 emergency
communication system I necessary for the function of life to
include those who have disabilities. However, the authors make
the argument that they are using people with disabilities as a
pawn to promote the new feature. They are using the
improvement of the system as an excuse to not address why it
has taken so long.
Why and how is this infrastructural change being made sense of
through disability, and for whom?
Methods: Archive of Educational Material
Sample: 911 communication material such as Public Service
Announcement, Brochures and web pages from the Federal
Communications Commission and the National Number
Association.
Variables: The change of media and technical design from the
perspective of people with disabilities.
Procedure: The use of dismediation and analyzing the media
looking at the information from an infrastructure perspective.
Results:
Statistical Test:
Findings: When considering the ability to talk to 911 or have a
peaceful encounter with the police or 911 emergency system is a
privilege. People with disabilities are not always understood
and could lead to a violent encounter because officer began to
assume, they are not cooperating. Although this a infrastructural
change for everyone to the emergency communication system,
they use disabilities as a way to justify the change and it will
not be questioned.

Discussion/Interpretation:
The limitations that have been placed in the system for years is
being covered up with the introduction of this new system. It
has not been challenged yet and consumers will not challenge it
because there was a infrastructural change.
Problems: Th argument seemed to be one sided and the author
assumed that consumers would not see how this advancement is
very essential if they do not have a disability.
Take home message: Technology has become domesticated by
societies demand and Text-to-Call is trying to implement it into
their system. 911 system has withstood being domesticated for
people with thick accents or people with disabilities.
Notable Quotes:
Ultimately, I argue that in these materials, deafness and
disability function as what Mara Mills refers to as an "assistive
pretext" (2010)--a preoccupation--that discursively reframes a
mainstream technology (texting) as an assistive technology,
both justifying its introduction and limiting the scope of
infrastructural change.
“The work of this article is both infrastructural and interpretive.
Approached with what Lisa Parks (2015) calls an
"infrastructural disposition.””
Additional References: Mills, M., & Sterne, J. (2017).
Afterword II: Dismediation--three proposals, six tactics. In E.
Ellcessor & B. Kirkpatrick (Eds.), Disability media studies (pp.
365-378). New York: New York University Press.
Moore, L. K. (2011). Emergency communications: Broadband
and the future of 911. Journal of Communications Research,
2(2/3), 179-210.
Morley, D. (1988). Family television: Cultural power and
domestic leisure. New York, NY: Routledge.

Moser, I. (2006). Disability and the promises of technology:
Technology, subjectivity and embodiment within an order of the
normal. Information, Communication & Society, 9(3), 373-395.
National Association of State 911 Administrators. (n.d.). 9-1-1
education resources. Retrieved from
http://www.know911.org/sample-materials/
New Jersey Government. (2016). Text To 9-1-1: Call when you
can, text when you can't [Video file]. Retrieved from
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=2Pu1wT1WuWk
911: CALL if you can, TEXT if you can't. (n.d.). Retrieved
from
http://www.richmondgov.com/EmergencyCommunications/Text
To911.aspx
Article #2
Citation: Manako Yabe (2016) Students, Faculty, and Staff's
Willingness to Pay for Emergency Texting, Journal of Applied
Security Research, 11:4, 437-449, DOI:
10.1080/19361610.2016.1210486
Main Points:
The text-to-911 was an important future that the emergency
communication services are trying to implement. However, it is
only available in certain cities. The survey was conducted at a
public university revealed that the student, faculty and staff
were willing to pay $7,736 for the safety feature. The amount
was larger than the amount that is used for the Text-to-911
needs to afford the necessities for the program to work.
Research Questions/Purpose: The study was created to
recognize the economic gain of using texting a form of
communication in an emergency. This study also asses the staff
and students’ voluntary agreement to pay for the program.
Researchers are also trying to see if their hypothesis correct.
Hypothesis 1 guess that student along with faculty will be more

willing to pay than the staff. Hypothesis 2 guess that people
with hearing/ speech disabilities have a high willingness to pay
as hearing participants. Which population at the univesrit would
benefit from the service more?
Methods: Contingent Valuation- Dichotomous Choice method
Sample: The participants of the study are students, faculty and
staff.
Variables: Independent is the emergency texting. Dependent
variable is the willingness to pay for the emergency texting.
Procedure: Participants were given a survey and instructed to
presume the university is implementing an emergency texting
program. They were asked are they willing to pay a volunteered
fee that would be deducted from the paychecks of faculty/ staff
and is included in tuition for students. They were able to choose
the amount to pay from the prices listed. Researchers also
asked questions pertaining to their personal lives to see of their
responses were based off of background information.
Results:
Statistical Test:
Findings: The average amount that as a collect group, 1505
people, were willing to pay is $5.14. the total amount would be
$7,736 per year. The first hypothesis was not accurate because
students were willing to pay $5.10, faculty was willing to pay
$4.84, and staff was willing to pay $5.29. The second
hypothesis showed there was no link between emergency texting
and hearing disabilities.
There were certain variables that played a part in their decision
to pay a certain amount such as income, gender, experience,
nationality and age.
Problems: The method that was chosen needs a large sampling
size in order for the results to be more accurate. There was
limited number of participants. Therefore, the extremely low
response rate compared to the population may not be accurate.
In addition, when participants were filling out the survey and
their answer was “I don’t know” it was taken as a No. The study

was also predicating that everyone had sale phones and a large
part of the population did not participate.
Take home message:
The only reason they were willing to pay was for their own
personal safety. And some said no but they probably did not
think of having the privilege to hear and speak. However, the
amount the participants are willing to pay shows the importance
of the program. People are willing to pay for their safety.
Notable Quotes:
“Black Hawk County, Iowa carried out a text-to-911 trial, and
they found that text-to-911 was useful for callers in domestic
and child abuse situations because the callers were fearful of
being overheard by offenders during their calls to 911 (Intrado,
2011). Furthermore, Vermont successfully conducted a text-to-
911 trial which demonstrated that text-to-911 was efficient to
protect callers who were involved in suicide and domestic
violence situations”
“Text-to-911 service also benefits general populations without
disabilities. For example, when the shooting occurred at
Virginia Tech in 2007, students attempted to send texts to 911
as they hid from the shooters on campus. However, the texts
were never delivered to the PSAPs because the PSAPs did not
have the capability to receive texts at that time.”
Additional References: Acision. (2012, May 9). US research by
Acision shows SMS is still the king of messaging with speed,
reach and reliability named as key reasons for usage over
alternative services.
Retrievedfromhttp://www.marketwired.com/press-release/us-
research-acision-shows-smsis-still-king-messaging-with-speed-
reach-reliability-1654679.htm Bateman, I., Carson, R. T., Day,
B., Hanermann, M., Hanley, N., Hett, T., … Elgar, E. (2002).
Economic valuation with stated preference techniques: A
manual. Cheltenham, UK: Edward ElgarPublishing,Inc. CTIA.
(2015a, March 17). Text message statistics. Retrieved
fromhttp://www.statisticbrain. com/text-message-statistics/

CTIA. (2015b, June 1). Annual wireless industry survey.
Retrieved fromhttp://www.ctia.org/ your-wireless-life/how-
wireless-works/annual-wireless-industry-survey Emergency
Access Advisory Committee. (2013). Proposed procedures for
the TTY as a text terminal in legacy 9-1-1 PSAPs without IP
connection. Retrieved fromhttps://apps.fcc.gov/
edocs_public/attachmatch/DOC-321704A1.pdf
Article #3
Citation:
Boatright-Horowitz, S. L., Olick, K., & Amaral, R. (2004).
Calling 911 during episodes of domestic abuse: What justifies a
call for help? Journal of Criminal Justice, 32(1), 89–92. doi:
10.1016/j.jcrimjus.2003.10.007
Main Points:
Calling 911 has been seen as justified by the participants in the
study to see if society still frowns upon domestic violence. All
participants have agreed that calling the police is the right thing
to do. However,
Women are afraid to call or cannot call so texting could be
beneficial.
Research Questions/Purpose:
There was a large number of women who were victims of
domestic violence. Out of almost four million women only half
of those cases were reported to the police. The study was
created to see if society was tolerant for domestic violence
behavior and is it worth someone calling 911 if they are victim
of the crime. “Is a 911 call justified?’
Methods: Videotape scenes/ Written demonstration
Sample: College students 18-27 years of age. (38 women & 10
males in method 1) Method 2: 22 males 159 females in a general
psychology course.
Variables:
Procedure: The participants are shown a video or a written
demonstration about domestic violence. The group is split in

half and one side is told that the victim is reoccurring victim
who has been hospitalized due to critical injuries. The other half
was given some insignificant information bout the victim. As
each scene passed, they were instructed to rate the level of
severity and answer the research question. Method 2- Three
scenes were shown (violent, nonviolent, verbally aggressive)
and after each scene participants were instructed to answer
some questions, rate the severity of the scene, and answer was
calling 911 justified.
Results:
Statistical Test:
Findings: During the method 1 study, participants said that 911
should be contacted during a physical domestic violence
situation as well as verbal threats. The results revealed that
participants were against domestic violence. The participants
agreed that calling 911 is justifies in verbally abuse (without
injury) and physical abuse (without injury). Informing them
about the victims domestic abuse past did not effect the
decision to call.
Majority of the participants agreed that calling the police in any
instance of verb al or physical abuse is justified. Their social
desirability answers did not match the seriousness they marked
for each scene.
Problems:
Gender could play a role in the decision’s participants chose.
They also used a small sample and assumed the rest of the US
would respond the same way.
Take home message:
People are taking domestic violence serious, and is admitting
that any act of domestic violence is justifiable to call
emergency communication system. However, it doesn’t explain
why women are not calling the police and reporting these
crimes.
Notable Quotes:
Additional References:

Article #4
Citation: Jakubowski, A., Kunins, H. V., Huxley-Reicher, Z., &
Siegler, A. (2017). Knowledge of the 911 Good Samaritan Law
and 911-calling behavior of overdose witnesses. Substance
Abuse, 39(2), 233–238. doi: 10.1080/08897077.2017.1387213
Main Points:
Good Samaritan law was passed in response to the rise in opioid
addiction. There is a fear associated with calling for medical
attention and help. There are many factors that play apart in
participants calling for help and the knowledge of this law has
changed that mindset for a lot of people. That law played a role
in the increase of participants calling 911.
There has been a rise in opioid deaths and a decrease in calling
911for medical attention due to the possibility of being
incarcerated. The purpose of this study is to see if having the
knowledge of the Good Samaritan Law effect someone calling
911 emergency communication system for medial help. The
researchers also trying to see if there are in other factors that
may play a role in calling 911 emergency communication
systems for medical care such as location or public housing.
Methods: Perspective Cohort study
Sample: Trained overdose responders
Variables: Independent variables is the knowledge participants
have about the Good Samaritan Law at that time and the
Overdose event features such as gender or relationship to the
victim and the area it happened. The continuous variable is the
age of participants.
Dependent variables are an overdose being witnessed and
contacting 911.
Procedure: The researchers chose their participants immediately
following the overdose prevention training (OPT). Participants
took part in survey after training and at three, six, and the
twelfth month standpoint with the use of close ended questions.
Participants marked down their own attributes. At each mark
participants were asked questions and tracked their responses.

Results:
Statistical Test: Researchers compared characteristics of
incidents where 911 was called versus 911 not being called.
Findings: There were 326 overdose incidents witnessed by 128
participants. As the study continued the knowledge of the GSL
increased to 78%, after the program, by the last survey.
Participants that have he wrong information about the law
decreased to 12% by the las survey. 911 as called for 83%
percent of the incidents. If 911 was not contacted participants
gave reasons such as someone called, the victim woke up or
scared of being incarcerated. After the program participants that
gained the right information after the program was three times
more likely to call then others who lacked the knowledge of the
law. In the statistical test, the location played a part if
participants would call 911 or not. Participants were more likely
to contact 911 in a public setting instead of private.
Knowledge of the GSL played a role in participants calling for
medical attention. A reason for a lack of calls in private areas
are that people are afraid they will be put in jail. Relationship
also plays a role in the decision to call 911 because participant
are more likely to call for a stranger than a relative (even with
the knowledge of the law).
Problems:
Participants were reporting the answers themselves so answers
could potentially be fabricated. Researchers also kept reminding
them of the law at each follow up so their reactions may not
have been natural due to the constant reminders.
Take home message:
It is very essential to inform and educate citizens about laws as
such because it could reduce the mortality rate. If all states
implement this law, it may decrease the lack of calling for
medical attention. Texting 911 is could eliminate some of the
fear associated with calling 911. It could also be more discrete.

Only a few stated passed the GSL therefore a large number of
the US states don’t have a that safety net leading to the decrease
in calls.
Notable Quotes: “Furthermore, our ﬁnding that knowledge of
the GSL increased over time has important implications for
overdose prevention training. Our study protocol of reinforcing
correct knowledge and correcting misinformation at each
follow-up suggests that refresher trainings and repeated
exposure to information about the GSL can help OPT
participants retain and increase their knowledge of the law and,
importantly, dispel misconceptions that can prevent overdose
witnesses from calling 911. Our ﬁndings, however, demonstrate
that there are still serious barriers preventing witnesses from
calling 911.”
Additional References: Rudd, RA, Aleshire N, Zibbell JE,
Gladden RM. Increases in drug and opioid overdose deaths—
United States, 2000–2014. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep.
2016;64:1378–1382. doi: 10.15585/mmwr. mm6450a3. PMID:
26720857 Baca CT, Grant KJ. What heroin users tell us about
overdose. J Addict Dis. 2007;26:63–68. doi:
10.1300/J069v26n04_08. PMID: 18032233 Davidson PJ,
McLean RL, Kral AH, Gleghorn AA, Edlin BR, Moss AR. Fatal
heroin-related overdose in San Francisco, 1997–2000: a case for
targeted intervention. J Urban Health. 2003;80:261–273. doi:
10.1093/ jurban/jtg029. PMID: 12791802 Lankenau SE, Wagner
KD, Silva K, et al. Injection drug users trained by overdose
prevention programs: responses to witnessed overdoses. J
Community Health. 2013;38:133–141. doi: 10.1007/s10900-012-
95917. PMID: 22847602
Article #5
Citation: Garcia, A. C. (2017). What Went Right: Interactional
Strategies for Managing Crisis Negotiations during an
Emergency Service Call. The Sociological Quarterly, 58(3),
495–518. doi: 10.1080/00380253.2017.1331713

Main Points:
Crisis management team uses various techniques to effectively
and must be knowledgeable and experienced. A person on the
crisis management team needs to be able to calm down the
victim and keep things from escalating. The dynamics of the
call changed from the usual two way interaction to a three way
interaction. The caller and the call taker worked as a collective
by building a bond with the intruder. The caller used
interactional techniques to convey to the intruder he has
someone to turn to in his state of need.
Research Questions/Purpose: This article will analyze
emergency communication system in connection to possible
school shooter incident. The purpose of the study is to assess
the results from preceding cases to get a better understanding of
certain events. Researchers are also assessing the failures from
a communication point as well as the success of the 911 calls.
Methods: Single case analysis- Conversation analysis
Sample: Intruder, The callers and the Call takers
Variables:
Procedure: The researcher looked closely as the emergency calls
and notice the techniques and training used to connect to the
intruder and deescalate the situation. The analyze the
negotiation and notes the footing shifting between the three way
call as the callers act as an intermediate.
Results:
Findings: Researchers analyzed the interactions between the
three-way interaction and saw the participants were able to
successfully display footing shifts. The caller translated the
demands and statements to the call taker. She used active
listening and different stages such as paraphrasing to convey to
the intruder and call taker that she is listening. The call taker
also kept things on track by communic ating demand as well as
telling the caller reassuring advice.
The skills used by the caller and the call taker are a great
teaching tool because it may help improve crisis management

situations in the future. This study shows that crisis
management team and negotiators need to able to connect with
the caller and mold their approach to fit each scenario different.
Problems:
Many of the responses from the intruder was not really heard
due to hm not talking directly into the dispatchers. Therefore,
they were not able to fully assess the interactions. Using the
single cases analysis method also questioning the validity.
Take home message:
Although some may know the textbook meaning for these terms
but to know when to implement the techniques and have smoot
transition is. Using this study helps see the negotiation and
asses the skills used with in interaction.
Notable Quotes:
“It is not enough to know that techniques such as listening
actively, creating rapport, and using a calm and steady tone of
voice will be helpful in crisis negotiations. What is critical is to
know when to use each technique, and how to transition
eff ectively between diff erent types of actions as necessary
given the unfolding interaction between the negotiator and the
subject. For example, in order for crisis negotiators to be
eff ective it is not enough to know that they should express
empathy for the subject, but to know how to accomplish this
action at the appropriate time in the interaction.”
Additional References: Antaki, Charles, ed. 2011. Applied
Conversation Analysis: Intervention and Change in Institutional
Talk. Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan. Antaki, Charles, and
Andrew Jahoda. 2010. “Psychotherapists’ Practices in Keeping
a Session ‘OnTrack’ in the Face of Clients’‘Off -Track’ Talk.”
Communication and Medicine 7:11–21. Antaki, Charles, Chris
Walton, and W. M. L. Finlay. 2007. “How Proposing an
Activity to a Person with an Intellectual Disability Can Imply a
Limited Identity.” Discourse and Society 18(4):393–40.
Arminen, Ilkka, and Alexandra Weilenmann. 2009. “Mobile
Presence and Intimacy-Reshaping Social Actions in Mobile
Contextual Configuration.” Journal of Pragmatics 41(2009):

1905–23. Atkinson, J. Maxwell, and Paul Drew. 1979. Order in
Court: The Organization of Verbal Interaction in Judicial
Settings. London: Palgrave Macmillan.
Article #6
Citation: Sheldon, P. (2017). Emergency Alert Communications
on College Campuses: Understanding Students’ Perceptions of
the Severity of a Crisis and Their Intentions to Share the Alert
With Parents and Friends. Western Journal of Communication,
82(1), 100–116. doi: 10.1080/10570314.2017.1308005
Main Points:
Technology has become domesticated so emergency systems
will need to catch up to a more technological advanced society.
College students have proven that text messages are the best
way to share the news about something severe like a school
shooting. Schools use social media to promote events and PSA
so emergency alerts were not taken as serious as the text
messages were. Improvements to technology and the alerts
could help protect students on campus.
The purpose of this study is to see what platform college
students would use to share emergency alerts, to assess the
perceived severity, and the likelihood to share the information.
”Research Question 1: How do university alert messages sent
through a text message vs. social media influence students’
perceptions of the seriousness of a crisis? Research Question
2a: How do students share university alert messages with other
people (in terms of the frequency of secondary crisis
communication and a preferred channel)? Research Question 2b:
Who do students share the alert messages with? Research
Question 2c: Which media do students use to share the alert
messages?” The researchers looked at preceding studies and
have hypothesized that the severity of the alert will be the
deciding factor if students will share it or not.
Methods:2 by 2 subject experiment

Sample: 162 students (83 women and 89 men).
Variables: Dependent- secondary crisis communication and
perceived severity.
Procedure: Researchers created hypothetical staged events and
showed screenshots that looked like a real alert that would be
sent during an emergency. There were four different scenarios
presented such as text/social media shooting alert and text
/social media tornado alert. Participants were then instructed to
answer a questionnaire telling which method they prefer,
severity of the alert, and which form would they use to spread
the information.
Results:
Statistical Test: They tested the dependent variables using
Repeated measures multivariate analysis of variance assessing
the stimuli. They then looked at the frequencies to get a better
explanation for the results.
Findings: Researchers found that the severity of the threat was
the deciding factors of what platform they would use to share
the alert. The more serious scenarios were more likely to be
shared by text then by social media. The school shooting alert
was significantly was sever than the tornado warning. The least
serious alert was the social media tornado alert. Text alerts
about both scenarios were taken more seriously than alerts
received through social media.
Texting is faster than logging into social media and is more
personal. Therefore, text messages are taken more seriously
than a social media post. There are other factors the contribute
the perceived severity such as previous experience for the
events in question. Some people have experienced tornado
warnings alerts more frequently than others, so their level of
severity was decreased for tat one.
Problems:
The study was based off of scenarios, so it is hard to see what
the participants real reaction. Testing it in a real event would

help improve external validity. Due to some participants having
experience with these scenarios, showing an alert message that
tells its severity would help test the reaction more (instead of
letting the participant guess the level of severity).
Take home message:
The alert that had the highest severity was went through text
message because this is a society that use our phones frequently
and have them readily available. Texting is faster and more
convenient a for social media you have to log in and scroll
down the feed. Word of mouth is the most valued form of
spreading information and next is through the phone. Although
natural disasters have the ability to kill more people, the
participants were more worried about the school shooter. People
only think something is severe if it involves them or ill affect
them in any way.
Notable Quotes:
“The telephone is the second richest medium and is clearly
preferred as a secondary communication tool when there is an
alert about a shooting”
Additional References: Abbasi, M. A., Kumar, S., Filho, J. A.
A., & Liu, H. (2012). Lessons learned in using social media for
disaster relief - ASU crisis response game. In SBP’s 12
Proceedings of the 5th International Conference on Social
Computing, Behavioral-Cultural Modeling and Prediction (pp.
282–289), College Park, MD. Armour, G. (2010). Communities
communicating with formal and informal systems: Being more
resilient in times of need. Bulletin of the American Society for
Information Science & Technology, 36(5), 34–38. Austin, L.,
Fisher Liu, B., & Jin, Y. (2012). How audiences seek out crisis
information: Exploring the social-mediated crisis
communication model. Journal of Applied Communication
Research, 40 (2), 188–207. doi:10.1080/00909882.2012.654498
Ball-Rokeach, S. J., & DeFleur, M. L. (1976). A dependency
model of mass-media effects. Communication Research, 3(1),
3–21. doi:10.1177/009365027600300101 Baron, G., & Philbin,
J. (2009). Social media in crisis communication: Start with a

drill. Public Relations Tactics, 16(4), 12.
Article #7
Citation:
Main Points:
Important Past Literature:
Methods:
Sample:
Variables:
Procedure:
Results:
Statistical Test:
Findings:
Problems:
Take home message:
Notable Quotes:
Article #8
Citation:
Main Points:

Methods:
Sample:
Variables:
Procedure:
Results:
Statistical Test:
Findings:
Problems:
Take home message:
Notable Quotes:
Article #9
Citation:
Main Points:
Methods:

Sample:
Variables:
Procedure:
Results:
Statistical Test:
Findings:
Problems:
Take home message:
Notable Quotes:
Article #10
Citation:
Main Points:
Methods:
Sample:
Variables:
Procedure:
Results:

Statistical Test:
Findings:
Problems:
Running head: TEXTING EMERGENCY COMMUNICATION
SERVICES
Hicks 2
Texting Emergency Communication Services
February 10, 2020
I will be digging into the topic of an alternative way to contact
911 dispatchers during an emergency. The research question I
am going to explore is, “Would the ability to text emergency
communication services be beneficial to different people and
during crimes? This topic is interesting because it can save
many lives ranging from those with hearing loss (or other
disabilities) to citizens who are not able to talk in fear of being
heard by the criminal. Emergency communication services are
dates and only cater to those that can hear and/or speak. In
addition, there is a growth of public shooting, and the ability to
text during situations as such would be very convenient and
could save many lives. In order to investigate the research
problem, I would conduct a voluntary survey for citizens that
are eighteen and older. Within that group, I would ask a variety

of people, such as ones on a college campus and in high crime
areas. For example, some of the wquestions I would ask are
during the survey are “have you ever had to call 911 dispatch,”
“have you ever had to reframe from calling 911 due to the
presence of an intruder,” “Do you believe texting 911 would be
more convenient when you are witnessing a crime,” “Do you
believe that texting 911 would help some with hearing
disabilities or speech impediments,” and “Do you believe that
texting 911 could save many lives?” During the research
period, I would ensure to protect the anonymity of the
participants and ensure that they are aware of the full study as
well as get consent to participate in the study. I would also let
the participants know that they have the right to withdraw
consent at any time if they feel the need to.
Sources
Baseman, J., Revere, D., Painter, I., Stangenes, S., Lilly, M.,
Beaton, R., ...Meischke, H. (2018). Impact of new technologies
on stress, attrition and well-being in emergency call centers: the
NextGeneration 9-1-1 study protocol. BMC Public Health,
18(1). Retrieved from https://link-gale
com.ezproxy.lib.apsu.edu/apps/doc/A546782526/AONE?u=tel_a
_apsu&sid=AONE&xid=56db4f17
Ellcessor, E. (2019). Call If You Can, Text If You Can't: A
Dismediation of U.S. Emergency Communication Infrastructure.
International journal of communication [Online], 4487+.
Retrieved from https://link-gale-
_apsu&sid=AONE&xid=79064255
Holloway, J. E., Seeman, E., & Kleckley, J. (2014, Spring).
FEDERALISM IN THE FINANCING OF 911 EMERGENCY
CALL SERVICES: NATURE OF THE FEDERAL-STATE
FUNDING ARRANGEMENT TO FINANCE NEXT
GENERATION (NG) 911 SERVICES. Journal of Law,

Technology and the Internet, 5, 113+. Retrieved from
https://link-gale-
_apsu&sid=AONE&xid=d706d8c6
Weinlich, M., Kurz, P., Blau, M. B., Walcher, F., & Piatek, S.
(2018). Significant acceleration of emergency response using
smartphone geolocation data and a worldwide emergency call
support system. PLoS ONE, 13(5), e0196336. Retrieved from
https://link-gale-
_apsu&sid=AONE&xid=99b28993
Yabe, M. (2016). Students, Faculty, and Staff’s Willingness to
Pay for Emergency Texting. Journal of Applied Security
Research, 11(4), 437–449. https://doi-
org.ezproxy.lib.apsu.edu/10.1080/19361610.2016.1210486
Running head: TEXTING EMERGENCY COMMUNICATION
SERVICES
Hicks 2
March 26, 2020

I will be digging into the topic of a beneficial alternative way to
contact 911 dispatchers during an emergency. My study will
assess the advantages of texting emergency communication
systems rather than the traditional way which is calling and
speaking with a dispatcher. This will be a cross-sectional study
with the use of a survey. During this study my independent
variable will be the questions I have chosen for the survey. I
would ensure to protect the anonymity of the participants and
ensure that they are aware of the full study as well as get
consent to participate in the study. I would also let the
participants know that they have the right to withdraw consent
at any time if they feel the need to. My dependent variable will
be the response from the participants in regard to the change of
each scenario and the respondents. My constant variable will be
the ability to text a 911 dispatcher.
My independent variables will be the various question I have
created for the survey. Each question will consist of a change in
victims, environment, and the crime being committed. On the
other hand, the form of communication, will not change in each
question. These close ended questions will be easier for the
respondents to answer and this would also make it easier to
obtain quantifiable data. During the survey, I will attempt to
avoid any harm including psychological and emotional harm.
The dependent variable which are the respondents and the
responses to the survey. The responses will be used to assess
societies attitude toward the benefits of texting emergency
communication systems for different members of a community.
As mentioned above the questions, the questions will be closed-
ended questions. However, under each question there will be a
box to add extra comments, concerns, or offer a different
perspective.
My independent variable will be asked in various scenarios that
include switching the victims, location and the type of crime.

Victims in the questionnaire will vary from with youth (17 and
under in age), citizens who are not able to talk due fear of being
heard by the criminal, and people with or without disabilities
and limitations which include hearing loss, speech impediments
or deaf. The questions will also change environment and crime
such as a home invasion, carjacking, bank robbery, etc. The
questions will
The survey will be given to the participants who are in high
crime areas, one who may have a listed disability/ limitation
who is able to complete the survey and students on a college
campus. I will take the responses, the dependent variable, and
asses the responses to determine of society believes texting
emergency communication systems will save lives.
PUP 420: Theory of
Urban Design
Unit 1: What is Urban Design?
What is Urban Design?
“Urban design is an art and not a science … a social and public
art rather than a personal or fine art.”
Douglas Kelbaugh, FAIA
“Urban design is only possible when people from various
disciplines and professions, and arts and sciences, agree to
work together.”
Robert Geddes, FAIA

Urban design is the art and science of
three dimensional arrangement of
buildings and space so that:
•  Functions are resolved efficiently,
•  A satisfactory aesthetic is attained,
and
•  The land is used to its best advantage.
Urban design is a process of change
that:
•  Expresses the common values of the
city’s inhabitants (what do they value
in their city?), and
•  Continuously recreates the city as
buildings and spaces are designed
and redesigned.
Seoul, S. Korea
What is Urban Design?
Urban design concerns the public
realm, but what is the public realm?
Is the public realm….
• All open spaces outside the private
domain?

• Everything that can be perceived
from areas the public can access?
• What about publicly owned
buildings?
• What about privately owned
property to which the public has
access?
There is no clear answer about what
constitutes the public realm. Melbourne, Australia
What is the Public Realm?
Urban design can also be viewed
as civic structure, which is the
framework of major roads,
pedestrian and bicycle routes,
open space corridors, and public
spaces.
Looking at urban design in this
way, we first plan for how we want
to use our open space.
We then use buildings and other
structures to reinforce and define
the open space system.
The Ohio State University campus
The Public Realm as Civic Structure

The public realm can be seen as consisting of…
Outdoor spaces:
•  Streets
•  Squares
•  Parks
•  Plazas
•  Pedestrian Walkways
Indoor spaces:
•  Arcades
•  Transportation Halls
•  Public Buildings
•  Shopping Malls (Perhaps. What do you think?)
Annapolis, Maryland
Definitions of the Public Realm:
We’ve been concerned about
public space for centuries.
As far back as 1748,
Giambattista Nolli mapped the
public space in Rome, Italy,
including the interior spaces
and courtyards.
• How much public space is
there in cities today?

• What would a Nolli plan of
Tempe look like?
Detail of Nolli Plan of Rome
Another function of the public
realm is financial investment.
•  Buildings represent an
investment on which
property owners
(usually) hope to make a
profit.
Melbourne, Australia
•  Owners may use their own funds to improve aspects of
the public realm that their developments affect, or that
affect their developments.
•  Additionally, tax income is used by municipalities to
improve the public realm, which in turn improves
property values (and creates greater tax revenues).
That’s it for Unit 1!

PUP 420 Theory of Urban Design Historical Perspecti

PUP 420 Theory of Urban Design Historical Perspecti

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