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Human 
Anatomy 
& Physiology 
SEVENTH EDITION 
Elaine N. Marieb 
Katja Hoehn 
Copyright © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings 
PowerPoint® Lecture Slides 
prepared by Vince Austin, 
Bluegrass Technical 
and Community College 
C H A P T E R 
7 
The Skeleton 
P A R T D
The Upper Limb 
 The upper limb consists of the arm (brachium), 
forearm (antebrachium), and hand (manus) 
 Thirty-seven bones form the skeletal framework of 
each upper limb 
Copyright © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings
Arm 
 The humerus is the sole bone of the arm 
 It articulates with the scapula at the shoulder, and 
the radius and ulna at the elbow 
Copyright © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings
Arm 
 Major markings 
 Proximal humerus includes the head, anatomical 
and surgical necks, greater and lesser tubercles, and 
the intertubercular groove 
 Distal humerus includes the capitulum, trochlea, 
medial and lateral epicondyles, and the coronoid 
and olecranon fossae 
 Medial portion includes the radial groove and the 
deltoid process 
Copyright © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings
Humerus of the Arm 
Copyright © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings 
Figure 7.23
Forearm 
 The bones of the forearm are the radius and ulna 
 They articulate proximally with the humerus and 
distally with the wrist bones 
 They also articulate with each other proximally 
and distally at small radioulnar joints 
 Interosseous membrane connects the two bones 
along their entire length 
Copyright © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings
Bones of the Forearm 
Copyright © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings 
Figure 7.24
Ulna 
 The ulna lies medially in the forearm and is 
slightly longer than the radius 
 Forms the major portion of the elbow joint with the 
humerus 
 Its major markings include the olecranon, coronoid 
process, trochlear notch, radial notch, and the 
styloid process 
Copyright © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings
Radius 
 The radius lies opposite (lateral to) the ulna and is 
thin at its proximal end, widened distally 
 The superior surface of the head articulates with 
the capitulum of the humerus 
 Medially, the head articulates with the radial notch 
of the ulna 
 Major markings include the radial tuberosity, ulnar 
notch, and styloid process 
Copyright © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings
Radius and Ulna 
Copyright © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings 
Figure 7.24
Hand 
 Skeleton of the hand 
contains wrist bones 
(carpals), bones of the 
palm (metacarpals), 
and bones of the 
fingers (phalanges) 
Copyright © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings 
Figure 7.26a
Carpus (Wrist) 
 Consists of eight bones 
 Scaphoid, lunate, triquetral, and pisiform 
proximally 
 Trapezium, trapezoid, capitate, and hamate distally 
Copyright © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings
Metacarpus (Palm) 
 Five numbered (1-5) metacarpal bones radiate 
from the wrist to form the palm 
 Their bases articulate with the carpals proximally, 
and with each other medially and laterally 
 Heads articulate with the phalanges 
Copyright © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings
Phalanges (Fingers) 
 Each hand contains 14 miniature long bones called 
phalanges 
 Fingers (digits) are numbered 1-5, beginning with 
the thumb (pollex) 
 Each finger (except the thumb) has three phalanges 
– distal, middle, and proximal 
 The thumb has no middle phalanx 
Copyright © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings
Comparison of Male and Female Pelves 
Copyright © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings 
Table 7.4.1
Comparison of Male and Female Pelves 
Copyright © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings 
Table 7.4.2
Pelvic Girdle (Hip) 
 The hip is formed by a pair of hip bones (os coxae, 
or coxal) 
 Together with the sacrum and the coccyx, these 
bones form the bony pelvis 
Copyright © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings
Pelvic Girdle (Hip) 
 The pelvis 
 Attaches the lower limbs to the axial skeleton with 
the strongest ligaments of the body 
 Transmits weight of the upper body to the lower 
limbs 
 Supports the visceral organs of the pelvis 
Copyright © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings
Pelvic Girdle (Hip) 
Copyright © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings 
Figure 7.27a
Ilium 
 The ilium is a large flaring bone that forms the 
superior region of the coxal bone 
 It consists of a body and a superior winglike 
portion called the ala 
 The broad posterolateral surface is called the 
gluteal surface 
Copyright © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings
Ilium 
 The auricular surface articulates with the sacrum 
(sacroiliac joint) 
 Major markings include the iliac crests, four 
spines, greater sciatic notch, iliac fossa, arcuate 
line, and the pelvic brim 
Copyright © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings
Ilium: Lateral View 
Copyright © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings 
Figure 7.27b
Ilium: Medial View 
Copyright © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings 
Figure 7.27c
Ischium 
 The ischium forms the posteroinferior part of the 
hip bone 
 The thick body articulates with the ilium, and the 
thinner ramus articulates with the pubis 
 Major markings include the ischial spine, lesser 
sciatic notch, and the ischial tuberosity 
Copyright © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings
Pubis 
 The pubic bone forms the anterior portion of the 
hip bone 
 It articulates with the ischium and the ilium 
 Major markings include superior and inferior rami, 
the pubic crest, pubic tubercle, pubic arch, pubic 
symphysis, and obturator foramen (along with 
ilium and ischium) 
Copyright © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings
Pubis: Lateral View 
Copyright © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings 
Figure 7.27b
Pubis: Medial View 
Copyright © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings 
Figure 7.27c
Comparison of Male and Female Pelvic 
Structure 
 Female pelvis 
 Tilted forward, adapted for childbearing 
 True pelvis defines birth canal 
 Cavity of the true pelvis is broad, shallow, and has 
greater capacity 
Copyright © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings
Comparison of Male and Female Pelvic 
Structure 
 Male pelvis 
 Tilted less forward 
 Adapted for support of heavier male build and 
stronger muscles 
 Cavity of true pelvis is narrow and deep 
Copyright © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings
Comparison of Male and Female Pelvic 
Structure 
Copyright © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings 
Image from Table 7.4
Comparison of Male and Female Pelvic 
Structure 
Characteristic Female Male 
Bone thickness Lighter, thinner, and smoother 
Copyright © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings 
Heavier, thicker, and more 
prominent markings 
Pubic arch/angle 80˚–90˚ 50˚–60˚ 
Acetabula Small; farther apart Large; closer together 
Sacrum 
Wider, shorter; sacral curvature is 
accentuated 
Narrow, longer; sacral 
promontory more ventral 
Coccyx More movable; straighter 
Less movable; curves 
ventrally
The Lower Limb 
 The three segments of the lower limb are the thigh, 
leg, and foot 
 They carry the weight of the erect body, and are 
subjected to exceptional forces when one jumps or 
runs 
Copyright © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings
Femur 
 The sole bone of the thigh is the femur, the largest 
and strongest bone in the body 
 It articulates proximally with the hip and distally 
with the tibia and fibula 
 Major markings include the head, fovea capitis, 
greater and lesser trochanters, gluteal tuberosity, 
lateral and medial condyles and epicondyles, linea 
aspera, patellar surface, and the intercondylar 
notch 
Copyright © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings
Femur 
Copyright © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings 
Figure 7.28b
Leg 
 The tibia and fibula form the skeleton of the leg 
 They are connected to each other by the 
interosseous membrane 
 They articulate with the femur proximally and with 
the ankle bones distally 
 They also articulate with each other via the 
immovable tibiofibular joints 
Copyright © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings
Tibia 
 Receives the weight of the body from the femur 
and transmits it to the foot 
 Major markings include medial and lateral 
condyles, intercondylar eminence, the tibial 
tuberosity, anterior crest, medial malleolus, and 
fibular notch 
Copyright © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings
Tibia and Fibula 
Copyright © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings 
Figure 7.29
Fibula 
 Sticklike bone with slightly expanded ends located 
laterally to the tibia 
 Major markings include the head and lateral 
malleolus 
Copyright © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings
Foot 
 The skeleton of the foot 
includes the tarsus, 
metatarsus, and the 
phalanges (toes) 
 The foot supports body 
weight and acts as a 
lever to propel the body 
forward in walking and 
running 
Copyright © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings 
Figure 7.31a
Tarsus 
 Composed of seven bones that form the posterior 
half of the foot 
 Body weight is carried primarily on the talus and 
calcaneus 
 Talus articulates with the tibia and fibula 
superiorly, and the calcaneus inferiorly 
 Other tarsus bones include the cuboid and 
navicular, and the medial, intermediate, and lateral 
cuneiforms 
Copyright © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings
Tarsus 
Copyright © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings 
Figure 7.31b, c
Calcaneus 
 Forms the heel of the foot 
 Carries the talus on its superior surface 
 Point of attachment for the calcaneal (Achilles) 
tendon of the calf muscles 
Copyright © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings
Metatarsus and Phalanges 
 Metatarsals 
 Five (1-5) long bones that articulate with the 
proximal phalanges 
 The enlarged head of metatarsal 1 forms the “ball 
of the foot” 
 Phalanges 
 The 14 bones of the toes 
 Each digit has three phalanges except the hallux, 
which has no middle phalanx 
Copyright © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings
Metatarsus and Phalanges 
Copyright © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings 
Figure 7.31a
Arches of the Foot 
 The foot has three arches maintained by 
interlocking foot bones and strong ligaments 
 Arches allow the foot to hold up weight 
 The arches are: 
 Lateral longitudinal – cuboid is keystone of this 
arch 
 Medial longitudinal – talus is keystone of this arch 
 Transverse – runs obliquely from one side of the 
foot to the other 
Copyright © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings
Arches of the Foot 
Copyright © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings 
Figure 7.32
Developmental Aspects: Fetal Skull 
 Infant skull has more bones than the adult skull 
 At birth, fetal skull bones are incomplete and 
connected by fontanels 
 Fontanels 
 Unossified remnants of fibrous membranes 
between fetal skull bones 
 The four fontanels are anterior, posterior, mastoid, 
and sphenoid 
Copyright © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings
Developmental Aspects: Fetal Skull 
 Skull bones such as the mandible and maxilla are 
unfused 
Copyright © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings 
Figure 7.33
Developmental Aspects: Growth Rates 
 At birth, the cranium is 
huge relative to the face 
 Mandible and maxilla 
are foreshortened but 
lengthen with age 
 The arms and legs grow 
at a faster rate than the 
head and trunk, leading 
to adult proportions 
Copyright © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings 
Figure 7.34
Developmental Aspects: Spinal Curvature 
 Only thoracic and sacral curvatures are present at 
birth 
 The primary curvatures are convex posteriorly, 
causing the infant spine to arch like a four-legged 
animal 
 Secondary curvatures – cervical and lumbar – are 
convex anteriorly and are associated with the 
child’s development 
Copyright © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings
Developmental Aspects: Old Age 
 Intervertebral discs become thin, less hydrated, and 
less elastic 
 Risk of disc herniation increases 
 Loss of stature by several centimeters is common 
after age 55 
 Costal cartilages ossify causing the thorax to 
become rigid 
 All bones lose mass 
Copyright © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings

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Ch07 d.skeletal

  • 1. Human Anatomy & Physiology SEVENTH EDITION Elaine N. Marieb Katja Hoehn Copyright © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings PowerPoint® Lecture Slides prepared by Vince Austin, Bluegrass Technical and Community College C H A P T E R 7 The Skeleton P A R T D
  • 2. The Upper Limb  The upper limb consists of the arm (brachium), forearm (antebrachium), and hand (manus)  Thirty-seven bones form the skeletal framework of each upper limb Copyright © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings
  • 3. Arm  The humerus is the sole bone of the arm  It articulates with the scapula at the shoulder, and the radius and ulna at the elbow Copyright © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings
  • 4. Arm  Major markings  Proximal humerus includes the head, anatomical and surgical necks, greater and lesser tubercles, and the intertubercular groove  Distal humerus includes the capitulum, trochlea, medial and lateral epicondyles, and the coronoid and olecranon fossae  Medial portion includes the radial groove and the deltoid process Copyright © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings
  • 5. Humerus of the Arm Copyright © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Figure 7.23
  • 6. Forearm  The bones of the forearm are the radius and ulna  They articulate proximally with the humerus and distally with the wrist bones  They also articulate with each other proximally and distally at small radioulnar joints  Interosseous membrane connects the two bones along their entire length Copyright © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings
  • 7. Bones of the Forearm Copyright © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Figure 7.24
  • 8. Ulna  The ulna lies medially in the forearm and is slightly longer than the radius  Forms the major portion of the elbow joint with the humerus  Its major markings include the olecranon, coronoid process, trochlear notch, radial notch, and the styloid process Copyright © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings
  • 9. Radius  The radius lies opposite (lateral to) the ulna and is thin at its proximal end, widened distally  The superior surface of the head articulates with the capitulum of the humerus  Medially, the head articulates with the radial notch of the ulna  Major markings include the radial tuberosity, ulnar notch, and styloid process Copyright © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings
  • 10. Radius and Ulna Copyright © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Figure 7.24
  • 11. Hand  Skeleton of the hand contains wrist bones (carpals), bones of the palm (metacarpals), and bones of the fingers (phalanges) Copyright © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Figure 7.26a
  • 12. Carpus (Wrist)  Consists of eight bones  Scaphoid, lunate, triquetral, and pisiform proximally  Trapezium, trapezoid, capitate, and hamate distally Copyright © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings
  • 13. Metacarpus (Palm)  Five numbered (1-5) metacarpal bones radiate from the wrist to form the palm  Their bases articulate with the carpals proximally, and with each other medially and laterally  Heads articulate with the phalanges Copyright © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings
  • 14. Phalanges (Fingers)  Each hand contains 14 miniature long bones called phalanges  Fingers (digits) are numbered 1-5, beginning with the thumb (pollex)  Each finger (except the thumb) has three phalanges – distal, middle, and proximal  The thumb has no middle phalanx Copyright © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings
  • 15. Comparison of Male and Female Pelves Copyright © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Table 7.4.1
  • 16. Comparison of Male and Female Pelves Copyright © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Table 7.4.2
  • 17. Pelvic Girdle (Hip)  The hip is formed by a pair of hip bones (os coxae, or coxal)  Together with the sacrum and the coccyx, these bones form the bony pelvis Copyright © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings
  • 18. Pelvic Girdle (Hip)  The pelvis  Attaches the lower limbs to the axial skeleton with the strongest ligaments of the body  Transmits weight of the upper body to the lower limbs  Supports the visceral organs of the pelvis Copyright © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings
  • 19. Pelvic Girdle (Hip) Copyright © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Figure 7.27a
  • 20. Ilium  The ilium is a large flaring bone that forms the superior region of the coxal bone  It consists of a body and a superior winglike portion called the ala  The broad posterolateral surface is called the gluteal surface Copyright © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings
  • 21. Ilium  The auricular surface articulates with the sacrum (sacroiliac joint)  Major markings include the iliac crests, four spines, greater sciatic notch, iliac fossa, arcuate line, and the pelvic brim Copyright © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings
  • 22. Ilium: Lateral View Copyright © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Figure 7.27b
  • 23. Ilium: Medial View Copyright © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Figure 7.27c
  • 24. Ischium  The ischium forms the posteroinferior part of the hip bone  The thick body articulates with the ilium, and the thinner ramus articulates with the pubis  Major markings include the ischial spine, lesser sciatic notch, and the ischial tuberosity Copyright © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings
  • 25. Pubis  The pubic bone forms the anterior portion of the hip bone  It articulates with the ischium and the ilium  Major markings include superior and inferior rami, the pubic crest, pubic tubercle, pubic arch, pubic symphysis, and obturator foramen (along with ilium and ischium) Copyright © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings
  • 26. Pubis: Lateral View Copyright © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Figure 7.27b
  • 27. Pubis: Medial View Copyright © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Figure 7.27c
  • 28. Comparison of Male and Female Pelvic Structure  Female pelvis  Tilted forward, adapted for childbearing  True pelvis defines birth canal  Cavity of the true pelvis is broad, shallow, and has greater capacity Copyright © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings
  • 29. Comparison of Male and Female Pelvic Structure  Male pelvis  Tilted less forward  Adapted for support of heavier male build and stronger muscles  Cavity of true pelvis is narrow and deep Copyright © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings
  • 30. Comparison of Male and Female Pelvic Structure Copyright © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Image from Table 7.4
  • 31. Comparison of Male and Female Pelvic Structure Characteristic Female Male Bone thickness Lighter, thinner, and smoother Copyright © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Heavier, thicker, and more prominent markings Pubic arch/angle 80˚–90˚ 50˚–60˚ Acetabula Small; farther apart Large; closer together Sacrum Wider, shorter; sacral curvature is accentuated Narrow, longer; sacral promontory more ventral Coccyx More movable; straighter Less movable; curves ventrally
  • 32. The Lower Limb  The three segments of the lower limb are the thigh, leg, and foot  They carry the weight of the erect body, and are subjected to exceptional forces when one jumps or runs Copyright © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings
  • 33. Femur  The sole bone of the thigh is the femur, the largest and strongest bone in the body  It articulates proximally with the hip and distally with the tibia and fibula  Major markings include the head, fovea capitis, greater and lesser trochanters, gluteal tuberosity, lateral and medial condyles and epicondyles, linea aspera, patellar surface, and the intercondylar notch Copyright © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings
  • 34. Femur Copyright © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Figure 7.28b
  • 35. Leg  The tibia and fibula form the skeleton of the leg  They are connected to each other by the interosseous membrane  They articulate with the femur proximally and with the ankle bones distally  They also articulate with each other via the immovable tibiofibular joints Copyright © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings
  • 36. Tibia  Receives the weight of the body from the femur and transmits it to the foot  Major markings include medial and lateral condyles, intercondylar eminence, the tibial tuberosity, anterior crest, medial malleolus, and fibular notch Copyright © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings
  • 37. Tibia and Fibula Copyright © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Figure 7.29
  • 38. Fibula  Sticklike bone with slightly expanded ends located laterally to the tibia  Major markings include the head and lateral malleolus Copyright © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings
  • 39. Foot  The skeleton of the foot includes the tarsus, metatarsus, and the phalanges (toes)  The foot supports body weight and acts as a lever to propel the body forward in walking and running Copyright © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Figure 7.31a
  • 40. Tarsus  Composed of seven bones that form the posterior half of the foot  Body weight is carried primarily on the talus and calcaneus  Talus articulates with the tibia and fibula superiorly, and the calcaneus inferiorly  Other tarsus bones include the cuboid and navicular, and the medial, intermediate, and lateral cuneiforms Copyright © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings
  • 41. Tarsus Copyright © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Figure 7.31b, c
  • 42. Calcaneus  Forms the heel of the foot  Carries the talus on its superior surface  Point of attachment for the calcaneal (Achilles) tendon of the calf muscles Copyright © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings
  • 43. Metatarsus and Phalanges  Metatarsals  Five (1-5) long bones that articulate with the proximal phalanges  The enlarged head of metatarsal 1 forms the “ball of the foot”  Phalanges  The 14 bones of the toes  Each digit has three phalanges except the hallux, which has no middle phalanx Copyright © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings
  • 44. Metatarsus and Phalanges Copyright © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Figure 7.31a
  • 45. Arches of the Foot  The foot has three arches maintained by interlocking foot bones and strong ligaments  Arches allow the foot to hold up weight  The arches are:  Lateral longitudinal – cuboid is keystone of this arch  Medial longitudinal – talus is keystone of this arch  Transverse – runs obliquely from one side of the foot to the other Copyright © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings
  • 46. Arches of the Foot Copyright © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Figure 7.32
  • 47. Developmental Aspects: Fetal Skull  Infant skull has more bones than the adult skull  At birth, fetal skull bones are incomplete and connected by fontanels  Fontanels  Unossified remnants of fibrous membranes between fetal skull bones  The four fontanels are anterior, posterior, mastoid, and sphenoid Copyright © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings
  • 48. Developmental Aspects: Fetal Skull  Skull bones such as the mandible and maxilla are unfused Copyright © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Figure 7.33
  • 49. Developmental Aspects: Growth Rates  At birth, the cranium is huge relative to the face  Mandible and maxilla are foreshortened but lengthen with age  The arms and legs grow at a faster rate than the head and trunk, leading to adult proportions Copyright © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Figure 7.34
  • 50. Developmental Aspects: Spinal Curvature  Only thoracic and sacral curvatures are present at birth  The primary curvatures are convex posteriorly, causing the infant spine to arch like a four-legged animal  Secondary curvatures – cervical and lumbar – are convex anteriorly and are associated with the child’s development Copyright © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings
  • 51. Developmental Aspects: Old Age  Intervertebral discs become thin, less hydrated, and less elastic  Risk of disc herniation increases  Loss of stature by several centimeters is common after age 55  Costal cartilages ossify causing the thorax to become rigid  All bones lose mass Copyright © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings