VarSeq 2.6.0: Advancing Pharmacogenomics and Genomic Analysis
Herbal medicines in cardiac patients
1. Running head: ADVERSE EFFECTS OF HERBAL MEDICINES 1
Adverse Effects of Herbal Medicines in Cardiac Patients
University of South Florida
Alexsandra de Oliveira
2. ADVERSE EFFECTS OF HERBAL MEDICINES 2
Adverse Effects of Herbal Medicines in Cardiac Patients
Heart disease is the number one cause of death in United States (Center for
Disease Control and Prevention [CDC], 2011). In 2009, 26.8 million noninstitutionalized
adults were diagnosed with heart disease (CDC, 2011). The diagnosis of a cardiac
disease leads to a sequence of treatments that includes the prescription of one or more
medications to help manage the disease. Prescription medication is not the only
resource used by cardiac patients to manage their disease. Gohar, Greenfield,
Beevers, Lip, and Jolly (2008) found that complementary and alternative medicine
(CAM) and home blood pressure devices are common self-care methods used by
hypertensive patients along with the prescribed medication.
CAM is widely used in the U.S with more than 15 million people using herbal
medicines (Tachjian, Maria & Jahangir, 2010). A clinical survey data revealed that 15%
of patients taking allopathic medication also use herbal medicines (Bush et al., 2007).
Research has also shown that the majority of patients do not tell their physicians about
the consumption of herbal medicines (Gardiner, Graham, Legedza, Eisenberg, &
Phillips, 2006). The concomitant use of herbal medicines and allopathic medication can
have detrimental effects to cardiac patients. Gohar et al. (2008) found a significant
association between CAM use and medication nonadherence among the female
participants in their study. Nonadherence to medication in post cardiac infarction
patients, for example, was associated to high risk of death (Ho et al., 2006). Cohen and
Ernst (2010) suggested that there are a large number of cardiac patients consuming
herbal medicines that cause common and/or rare adverse effects.
3. ADVERSE EFFECTS OF HERBAL MEDICINES 3
Although herbal medicines have been used for centuries there is a lack of
scientific evidence about the risks and/or benefits of its use with today’s complex
medication regimen used to treat cardiac patients. The purpose of this literature review
is to explore evidence-based literature related to the risks of the most commonly used
herbal medicines to cardiac patients taking allopathic medication.
Research Question
In cardiac patients, what are the potential adverse effects of herbal medicine
when used in conjunction with the prescribed drug therapy?
Relevance to Nursing Practice
Nurses at all levels of care in a variety of settings including hospitals, cardiac
rehabilitation services, and home care, are involved in assessing medication
management. In this regard, nurses bear the responsibility not only to improve the
patient’s ability to manage their medication regimen, but also to ensure safety regarding
potential adverse effects. Therefore, nurse’s knowledge of scientific evidence about the
potential risks of herbal-drug interactions is desirable when providing medication
education and in assessing drug adherence.
Review of the Literature
Five studies were reviewed that describe potential adverse effects of the
interaction of herbal medicines and some of the most common prescribed cardiac drug
therapy. Mohammed, et al. (2008), sought to investigate possible interactions of herbal
medicines with warfarin in light of genetic variability. Garlic and cranberry were chosen
for this study because are widely consumed in the United States (Mohammed et al.,
2008). The aim of the study was to investigate the possible effects of these two herbal
4. ADVERSE EFFECTS OF HERBAL MEDICINES 4
medicines on the pharmacokinetics and pharmacodynamics of warfarin in subjects with
two specific genotypes (Mohammed et al., 2008).
Mohammed, et al. (2008) conducted an open-label, three-treatment,
randomized crossover clinical trial included 12 healthy males with two known specific
genotypes, CYP2C9 and VKORC1. The garlic product utilized in this study was
selected based on the concentration of allicin per tablet (Mohammed et al., 2008).
Allicin is the most important compound present in garlic involved in the antiplatelet
effects (Mohammed et al., 2008). The cranberry concentrate juice was selected based
on the high concentration of anthocyanin and quercetin due the fact that only these two
compounds were equally found in all products analyzed for this study (Mohammed et
al., 2008). Healthy male subjects were selected between the ages of 18 and 34 years
old (Mohammed et al., 2008). A full medical history, physical examination and clinical
laboratory evaluation was utilized to classify the subjects as healthy (Mohammed et al.,
2008). The subjects were tested for CYP2C9 or VKORC1 genotype, warfarin plasma
protein binding, platelet aggregation and international normalized ratios (Mohammed et
al., 2008). The activity of Factor II, Factor VII and Factor X of coagulation were
measured after the consumption of warfarin alone and after warfarin and cranberry juice
extract ingestion (Mohammed et al., 2008).
The 12 healthy male subjects were randomly assigned in three groups to receive
a single dose of 25mg of warfarin either alone or after two weeks of pre-treatment with
cranberry juice concentrate capsules or enteric-coated garlic tablets (Mohammed et al.,
2008). Cranberry and garlic continued to be consumed for seven days after the
administration of warfarin. After a two week washout period the subjects were crossed
5. ADVERSE EFFECTS OF HERBAL MEDICINES 5
over to receive the different treatment. The well-being and any adverse events were
assessed throughout this study. None of the subjects in this study presented major
bleeding or INR above four (Mohammed et al., 2008).
The results of Mohammed et al. (2008) trial revealed two significant findings.
First, the cranberry and warfarin treatment resulted in a 30% increase in the area under
the INR-time curve. Second, different genotypes react differently in response to the
warfarin and cranberry or warfarin and garlic interaction. The researchers concluded
that subjects with VKORC1 variant type (CT and TTalleles) were more susceptible to
interaction with warfarin and cranberry (Mohammed et al., 2008). Subjects with wild-
type VKORC1 genotype are susceptible to warfarin with garlic interactions by
decreased of warfarin response (Mohammed et al., 2008). Although not statistically
significant, the researchers also found that there was a decrease in activity of all clotting
factors with the concomitant administration of warfarin and cranberry (Mohammed et al.,
2008).
This study presents two important limitations. First, the sample size for the two
specific genotypes was of only 12 subjects’ total. Second, the mean age of the subjects
was 23 years old. The small sample size might have yield the positive interactions
which contradicts Mohammed, et al. (2008) literature review that no herb-drug
interaction with warfarin was observed in previous research. The age of the subjects is
an important factor when considering the applicability of this study in cardiac patients.
Approximately 47% of Americans with cardiovascular disease are 60 years old or older
(Lloyd-Jones et al. 2010). Therefore, further research is necessary including an age
variant to ensure the clinical relevance of the study for the majority of cardiac patients.
6. ADVERSE EFFECTS OF HERBAL MEDICINES 6
Paoletti et al. (2011) hypothesized that possible interactions of oral
anticoagulants with herbal supplements represent a health risk for many individuals.
Through a collection of spontaneous reports the researchers sought to identify all drug
interactions between herbs and oral anticoagulants. The reports were extracted from
the Italian National Institute of Health Database. Initially 379 reports of suspected
adverse reactions to natural products from April 2002 to December 2009 were collected.
The reports with INR modification after herbal consumption were further analyzed to
ensure that individuals were previously stably anticoagulated (Paoletti et al., 2011).
Cases with factors that could interfere with anticoagulant such as illnesses and vitamin
K intake changes were excluded (Paoletti et al., 2011). The researchers identified 12
reports, seven cases of INR reduction in patients treated with warfarin and
acenocoumarol and five cases in which the INR increased (Paoletti et al., 2011).
Among the reported cases of INR reduction due to herb-drug interaction was one case
of warfarin and home-made aloe preparation, one case of acenocoumarol and red
ginseng, one case of warfarin and yeast fermentation of papaya, one case of warfarin
and papaya extract, one case of warfarin and bilberry concentrate juice, one case of
warfarin and a supplement containing several vitamins and fish oil, and one case of
warfarin and green tea (Paoletti et al., 2011). The researchers identified five cases of
INR increases involving the interaction of warfarin and arnica or boswellia-based
products. In one case arnica was used in a form of cream to myalgia and the patient
presented serious adverse effects with elevation of INR after one month of the use of
the cream (Paoletti et al., 2011).
7. ADVERSE EFFECTS OF HERBAL MEDICINES 7
The researchers concluded that the cases analyzed confirmed the existence of
the risk of herbal products and oral anticoagulants. However, the study is limited
because it was unable to identify if common factors such as age or herbal components
were involved in the reported interactions. In addition, the applicability of this study to
clinical practice is compromised because only one case of most herb-anticoagulant
interaction in the study was analyzed. Nevertheless, Paoletti et al. (2011) succeeded in
opening the discussion of a variety of possible herbal interactions with oral
anticoagulants based on reported INR results.
Saw, Bahari, Ang, and Lim (2006) cross-sectional survey sought to determine the
prevalence of herbal use possibly interfering with antiplatelet or anticoagulant therapy in
medical wards in a Malaysian hospital. The survey included 250 patients under
antiplatelet or anticoagulant therapy in the cardiology, neurology, infectious and
nephrology wards. Patients under the age of 18, pregnant women and patients unable
to give consent were excluded from this study (Saw et al., 2006). A questionnaire
including questions on socioeconomic background was developed to document the use
of warfarin or aspirin with herbal medicines (Saw et al., 2006). The herbs that most
concerned the researchers were ginseng, garlic and ginkgo. The population included in
the study consisted of 127 women and 123 men. Of this population 74.4% were in poor
health conditions (Saw et al., 2006). Among the patients 42.2% reported taking herbal
medicine and 31% were taking ginseng, garlic or ginkgo for the past year (Saw et al.,
2006). The survey showed that 40% of the patients were taking antiplatelet and /or
anticoagulant for the past year (Saw et al., 2006).The survey also identified eight
possible interactions involving 50% garlic with aspirin, 37.5% warfarin with ginseng or
8. ADVERSE EFFECTS OF HERBAL MEDICINES 8
ginkgo and 12.5% ginkgo with aspirin (Saw et al., 2006). The majority of the
interactions 62.5% were in patients older than 62 years of age (Saw et al., 2006). The
most common side-effects were headache 22.2% and dizziness 16.7% (Saw et al.,
2006). Finally, the survey revealed that 90% of the patients did not inform their
healthcare provider about the use of herbal medicines (Saw et al., 2006).
Saw et al. (2006) concluded that these findings suggested potential health risks
due to herb-drug interaction for pre or post-operative patients and patients with clotting
disorders. The researchers also recognize that this survey presents limitations because
other factors such as patient characteristics may also interfere in the effects of herb-
drug interactions.
Saw et al. (2006) findings are neither conclusive nor broadly applicable to cardiac
patients. The researchers associated symptoms such as headache and dizziness to
herb-drug interaction based only on the review of the literature. However, most of the
literature on the subject of herb-drug interaction is based on isolated case reports.
Therefore, further research is necessary to verify the applicability of these findings to a
larger population of patients under anticoagulation or antiplatelet therapy.
Gurley, Swain, Williams, Barone, and Battu, (2008) hypothesized that herbal
medicines can interact with drugs that are P-glycoprotein substrates and that those
interactions may be clinically observed. An open-label randomized research model was
used to test the effects of St. John's wort and echinacea, two commonly used herbal
supplements, on the pharmacokinetic effect of digoxin which is a P-glycoprotein
substrate. Clarithromycin and rifampin was used by the researchers as positive controls
for digoxin induction and inhibition. The study subjects were 18 young adults which
9. ADVERSE EFFECTS OF HERBAL MEDICINES 9
included nine females all in good health and were not under any form of medication
therapy (Gurley et al., 2008). The participants were also told to avoid specific foods and
drinks that could interfere with the study. All subjects received all drugs in a random
sequence of supplementation phase first and then medication phase (Gurley et al.,
2008). The supplementation phase which includes St. John's wort or Echinacea lasted
14 days. The medication phase with clarithromycin or rifampin was administered for
seven days (Gurley et al., 2008). St. John's wort was administered three times daily at
300mg dosage, Echinacea three times daily at 2600 mg, clarithromycin was
administered two times a day at 500 mg dosage and rifampin was administered twice a
day at 300mg dosage(Gurley et al., 2008). Digoxin was always administered 24h
before each supplementation or medication phase and on the last day of each therapy
(Gurley et al., 2008).
The results of this study showed that Echinacea had no significant effect on the
blood concentration of digoxin when compared to the positive controls clarithromycin
and rifampin. As a result no clinical effects were noticed (Gurley et al., 2008). The
administration of St. John's wort with digoxin resulted in a significant interaction. The
blood serum concentration of digoxin decreased 35% in the presence of St. John’s wort
(Gurley et al., 2008). The concomitant administration of the positive control rifampin
and digoxin also decreased the concentration of digoxin. Although this study included
equal amounts of gender participants the results did not showed a link between digoxin-
herb interaction and gender. In regards to side effects two subjects had drowsiness
during the St. John’s wort phase (Gurley et al., 2008).
10. ADVERSE EFFECTS OF HERBAL MEDICINES 10
Gurley et al. (2008) study is of unique importance because it compared the
results of the herb-digoxin interaction to already documented digoxin interaction with
rifampin and clarithromycin. This in turns produced a benchmark for evaluation of herb-
digoxin interaction. The study also confirmed the researcher’s hypothesis that clinical
events may be observed due to herb-drug interaction since two subjects during the St.
John’s wort phase had drowsiness. However, a larger sample might be necessary to
ensure statistically significance. Another limitation is that no long term effects of the
concomitant administration of St. John’s wort and digoxin can be evaluated because the
supplementation phase only lasted 14 days. In summary, both the sample size and the
lack of long term effects limit the applicability of these results to clinical practice.
Werba et al. (2008) case report studied the effect of green tea on the simvastatin
tolerability. The authors’ literature review indicated that a patient’s adherence to statins
is directly affected by the most reported adverse effect of the drug; muscle cramps. In
this case report the authors hypothesized that particular foods or fruit juices can also
interact with statins and cause muscle cramps by increasing the bioavailability of the
drug (Werba et al., 2008).
This case report involved a 61 year old male patient of whom a health history
was collected revealing a family history of coronary disease, hypertension and
hypercholesterolemia but no family history of myopathy (Werba et al., 2008). The
subject had been taking antihypertensive and cholesterol-lowering medications for
eleven years (Werba et al., 2008). The cholesterol-lowering drug treatment had been
modified between simvastatin, atorvastatin or rosuvastatin and eventually stopped by
the subject due to intense leg muscle cramps and pain (Werba et al., 2008). A physical
11. ADVERSE EFFECTS OF HERBAL MEDICINES 11
examination of the subject revealed a minimal carotid atheroma upon ultrasonography
(Werba et al., 2008). The subject was classified as generally healthy and physically
active. Upon nutritional history the researchers found that the patient typically drank
three cups of green tea each day to reinforce his health (Werba et al., 2008).
The researchers accessed the bioavailability of simvastatin in order to study the
possible interaction of green tea and the drug by performing a kinetic study. The kinetic
study consisted of two parts. During the first part the subject took simvastatin 20mg/d
for five days and on the sixth day simvastatin was ingested fasting with a cup of green
tea (Werba et al., 2008). During the second part the patient took the same simvastatin
20mg/d for five days and on the sixth day simvastatin was ingested fasting with a cup of
water (Werba et al., 2008). The patient’s plasma level of simvastatin lactone and
simvastatin acid were monitored for a month by a series of blood analysis (Werba et al.,
2008). The results of the kinetic study showed that the levels of simvastatin lactone and
simvastatin acid were both higher during the concomitant ingestion of green tea and
simvastatin. In addition, the researchers reported that after stopping the green tea the
patient continued taking simvastatin 20mg/d with optimal tolerance for three months
(Werba et al., 2008).
The researchers concluded that due to the absence of intolerance during the
withdrawal of green tea and due to the blood results demonstrating high levels of
simvastatin metabolites that the study suggested a clinically relevant green tea-statin
interaction (Werba et al., 2008). In addition, Werba et al. (2008) suggested that upon
more investigation green tea should be considered an unexpected trigger for statin
toxicity.
12. ADVERSE EFFECTS OF HERBAL MEDICINES 12
The main limitation of this study is that only one case was reported and analyzed
which limits the applicability of the results to the overall population or even within the
population of cardiac patients. Another important limitation is that the subject’s level of
CYP450 3A4 the main enzyme that metabolizes simvastatin was not reported in the
study. Werba et al. (2008) literature review stated that in healthy volunteers green tea
had only minor effects on the activity of CYP450 3A4. Therefore, in reporting the
activity levels of this enzyme the authors would be able to narrow the cause of their
findings to an herb-drug interaction rather than a possible individual genetic
predisposition of CYP450 to metabolize simvastatin faster when in the presence of
green tea.
Nevertheless, in the face of lack of research addressing the topic of herb-drug
interaction, the article is of unique value because it raises awareness among health
care professionals about the subject. It also draws scientific conclusions based not only
on laboratory inquiries but also based on clinical events. This intersection of methods is
important for evidence-based nursing practices because it provides nurses with a
clinical target to be observed when assessing medication history and/or drug adherence
in cardiac patients.
Application of the Literature to Practice
The literature does not show conclusive findings in regards to specific adverse
effects of herb-drug interaction in cardiac drug therapy. However, it indicates that high
risk medications such as warfarin and digoxin have the greatest potential to interact with
herbal medicines. The literature is consistent on the fact that the majority of patients do
not tell their health care providers about the use of herbal medicines. In light of such
13. ADVERSE EFFECTS OF HERBAL MEDICINES 13
knowledge nurses should include specific questions in their medication assessment
such as: Do you take any herbal supplements? In addition, nurses must be aware of
the crucial role of educating cardiac patients about the potential risks of combining
herbal and allopathic medications.
Conclusions
There is a lack of research trials investigating the adverse effects cardiac drug
therapy when administrated with herbal medicines. Because heart disease is an
alarming problem in the United States all factors that may influence patient’s ability to
comply with the medication regimen must be addressed. Therefore further research
identifying adverse effects of herb-drug interaction in a short and long term is of extreme
importance for cardiac patients. Until then, nurses must be aware of the most common
herb-cardiac drug interactions and educated patients on the possible risks of combining
herb and allopathic medication.
14. ADVERSE EFFECTS OF HERBAL MEDICINES 14
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