1. ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY
Introduction

2. Course Overview
Anatomy and Physiology: 100 marks
Internal (30) External (70)
Theory Practical Theory Practical
20 10 60 10
Course Objectives: Introduction
• Define anatomy and physiology
• Relationship between anatomy and physiology
• Term describing body position, region, and sections
• Body cavities and organs within it
• Systems of the body
• Anatomical Terminologies

3. Anatomy
• Greek anatomē = dissection = cutting up
• is the scientific study of the structure of organisms
including their systems, organs and tissues
• appearance and position of the various parts
• the materials from which they are composed
• their locations and their relationships with other parts

4. Physiology
• Greek physis - nature, origin; logia - study of
• the scientific study of functions and mechanisms in a
living system
• focuses on how organisms, organ systems, individual
organs, cells, and biomolecules carry out the chemical
and physical functions

5. Relationship between Anatomy and Physiology
• Close Connection in medical science
• Anatomy clarifies the structure
• Physiology describes the function
• Knowledge of anatomy is required to understand the
physiology
• Understanding of physiology is required to discover
how anatomical structure perform

6. Level Of Organization

7. Regions Of The Body
Axial
Head
Neck Trunk
Thoracic
Region
Abdominal
Region
Quadrants
Regions
Appendicular Region
Upper Limb
Lower Limb
9 Regions
4 Quadrants

8. Regions of the Abdomin

9. Organs in the Quadrants
Right Upper Quadrant Left Upper Quadrant
Right Lower Quadrant
the descending colon and sigmoid colon
the left ovary and fallopian tube
the left ureter
Liver
Gall bladder with biliary tree
Duodenum
Head of pancreas
Right kidney and adrenal gland
Hepatic flexure of colon
Stomach
Spleen
Left lobe of liver
Body of pancreas
Left kidney and adrenal gland
Splenic flexure of colon
Parts of transverse and descending colon
Cecum
Appendix
Ascending colon
Right ovary and Fallopian tube
Right ureter

10. Regions of the Abdomin

11. Body Cavities
Dorsal Body Cavity
Vertebral Cavity
Cranial
Cavity
Ventral Body Cavity
Thoracic Cavity
Abdomino-pelvic Cavity
• any space or compartment in an animal body
• accommodates organs and other structures
• cavities contain fluid

12. Body Cavities

13. Body Cavity > Dorsal > Vertebral Canal > Spinal Column
• Enclosed by cranium
• Contains brain
Body Cavity > Dorsal > Cranial > Brain
• Enclosed by spinal or vertebtral column
• Contains spinal cord
• lined by three membrane layers called meninges

15. Ventral Cavity > Thoracic Cavity > Pleural Cavity
• Divided into left, right and median portions by
mediastinum
• Right and left portions - pleural cavity- lungs
• Pleural cavity - narrow space that exists between
visceral and parietal pleura
• lined by double layered membrane - pleura
• Outer layer - parietal pleura - inside of rib cage
• Inner layer - visceral pleura - external surface of lungs

16. • Middle portion of thoracic cavity within the mediastinum is
occupied by heart, major blood vessels and thymus gland
• Heart is enclosed by membrane called pericardium
• Pericardium has two layers:
• Outer - parietal pericardium
• Inner - visceral pericardium - forms the surface of heart
• Pericardial cavity - space between parietal pericardium
and visceral pericardium
Ventral Cavity > Thoracic Cavity > Pericardial Cavity

17. Ventral Cavity > Abdominopelvic cavity
• contains abdominal cavity and pelvic cavity
• Abdominal cavity - digestive organs, kidneys, ureters
• Pelvic cavity - reproductive system, urinary bladder, urethra, and distal
part of large intestines
• moist serous double layered lining in abdominal cavity - peritoneum
• Outer layer - Parietal peritoneum - lines wall of abdominopelvic cavity
• Inner layer - Visceral peritoneum - lines external surface of most
digestive organs
• Peritoneal cavity - space between parietal layer and viseral layer of
peritoneum

18. Anatomy 2078-10-20
Learning Objeives
• Positions of the body
• Anatomical Planes
• Anatomical Terminologies
• Clinical Terms
• Homeostasis mechanism

19. Positions of the body
• Position = The posture of the body
Types:
1. Anatomical Position
2. Supine Position
3. Prone Position
4. Right Lateral Recumbent Position
5. Left Lateral Recumbent Position
6. Lithotomy Position

20. 1. Anatomical Position of human body
• Erect, in standing position
• Eyes look straight to the front
• Upper Limbs hang by the side of
the trunk with palms directed
forward
• Lower Limbs - Parallel with toes
pointing forward

21. 2. Supine Position
• Lying down
• Face pointing upwards
• Similar to anatomical position
but
anatomical position = vertical plane
supine position = horizontal plane

22. 3. Prone Position
• Back of the body is directed upwards
• Face pointing downwards
• Horizontal plane

23. 4. Right Lateral Recumbent Position
• lying in right side of the
body
5. Left Lateral Recumbent Position
• lying in the left side of the body

24. 6. Lithotomy Position
• body lying in supine position
• hips and knees fully extended
• feets are strapped in position to support
flexed knees and hips

25. ANATOMICAL PLANES
• imaginary surfaces
• formed by extension
through any axis of the
body
• or two definitive points in
the body

26. Types of Anatomical Plane
1. Median / Mid Sagittal Plane
2. Sagittal Plane / Longitudinal Plane
3. Frontal / Coronal Plane
4. Transverse / Horizontal Plane / Axial Plane

27. 1. Median Plane
• passes through centre of the body
• divides body into two equal right
and left halves

28. 2. Saggital Plane
• any plane parallel to the
median plane

29. 3. Coronal / Frontal Plane
• right angle to sagittal
plane or median plane
• divides body into anterior
and posterior halves

30. 4. Transverse / Horizontal Plane
• right angle to both
sagittal and coronal planes
• divides body into
superior and inferior
positions

31. Sytems of the body
1. Integumentary System
2. Skeletel System
3. Muscular System
4. Nervous System
5. Endocrine System
6. Circulatory System
7. Lymphatic System
8. Immune System
9. Respiratory System
10. Digestive System
11. Urinary System
12. Reproductive System
Protection,
Support and
movement
Internal communication and
integration
Fluid Transport
Defense
Input and Output / Intake
and Excretion
Reproduction

32. Anatomical Terminology
• form of scientific terminologies
• used by zoologists, anatomists, and health care
professionals
• helps to reduce ambiguity

33. Anatomical Terminologies
• Anterior / Ventral : Towards the front
• Posterior / Dorsal : Towards the back
• Superior : Towards the head (Up)
• Inferior : Towards the feet (Down)
• Medial : Towards the midnine
• Lateral : Away from the midline
• Caudal : Towards the tail
• Palmar / Volar : Palm of the hand

34. Anatomical Terminologies
...contd.
• Distal : away from the trunk
• Proximal : nearer to the trunk
• Radial : Outer border in upper limb
• Ulnar : Inner border in upper limb
• Tibial : Inner border in lower limb
• Fibular : Outer border in lower limb
• Intermediate: Between two structures

35. Anatomical Terminologies
...contd.
• Plantar : Sole of the foot
• Interior : Inner
• Exterior : Outer
• Superficial : Towards the surface
• Deep : Inner to the surface
• Ipsilateral : Same side
• Contralateral : Opposite side

36. Some Clinical Terms
• Puberty : The age at which the secondary sexual character developed
i.e. 12 -15 years in girls & 13-16 in boys
• Symptoms : subjective complaints of the patient about the disease
• Sign : The sign are objective finding by the doctor on the patient
• Diagnosis: The identification of a disease or determination of the
nature of a disease
• Pyrexia : Fever

37. Some Clinical Terms
• Lesion : Injury or pathologic change to tissues
• Haemmorrhage : Bleeding which may be external or
internal
• Paralysis : Loss of motor power (Movement)
• Hemiplegia : Paralysis of the one half of the body
• Paraplegia : Paralysis of both of the knees
• Monoplegia : Paralysis of any one limb
• Quadriplegia : Paralysis of all the four limbs
• Coma: Deep state of unconsciousness

38. Body Movements
• The motion of all or part of the body, especially at a joint or joints
Types of Body Movements:
1. Flexion: The movement by which the angle of a joint is decreased
2. Extension: The movement by which the angle of a joint is increased
3. Adduction: The movement towards the central axis (mid line)
4. Abduction: The movement away from the central axis (mid line)

39. Types of Body Movement
5. Medial rotation: The rotation toward the medial side of the body
6. Lateral rotation: The rotation towards the lateral side of the body
7. Circumduction: The circular movement of a body part such as a
ball and socket joints
-consists of combination of flexion, extension, adduction and
abduction

40. Homeostasis
• The cells require a set amount of nutrients, oxygen and
other biomolecules
• Cells also need to get rid of toxic materials
• All of these balance is maintained by organ systems to
maintain homeostasis balance
• For eg. Circulatory system, Urinary System, Digestive
system, Respiratory system etc function together
• Disruption in homeostasis may cause cell to die or
diseased

41. Homeostasis
Variables, Set Point and Normal Range
• Each cell of the body is surrounded by a small
amount of fluid
• Normal functions of each cell depend on the
maintenance of its fluid environment
• fluid environment is set within a narrow range
of conditions, including temperature, volume,
and chemical content (Set Point)
• These conditions are called variables
because their values can change
• Homeostatic mechanisms, such as sweating
or shivering,normally maintain body
temperature near an ideal normal value, or
set point

42. Variables, Set Point and Normal Range
• Homeostatic mechanisms, such as
sweating or shivering, normally
maintain body temperature near an
ideal normal value, or set point
• But these mechanism are not able
to keep the parameters precisely
at set points
• So parameters fluctuate around
normal range
• As long as parameters remain in
normal range, homeostasis is
maintained
Concept of set point and normal range

43. Homeostasis
• Greek: Homoios- = similar; -statis = standing still
meaning : staying the same
• maintainance of constant internal environment of the
body
• Body tends to keep all parameters of the system static
• Temperature, Pressure, Level of Hormones, Chemicals

44. Homeostasis
• Body’s internal conditions are in dynamic equilibrium
changing, but in balance
• Parameters are not absolutely constant but fluctuate
between set point or average
• Conditions fluctuate around this set point
• For e.g body temp = 98.6 (97-99)

45. Homeostasis
• The ability or tendency of the body to maintain internal
stability in an organism to compensate for
environmental changes is known as homeostasis.

46. Control System
• Receptor (Sensor) monitors value (e.g.
Baroreceptors, thermoreceptors,
mechanoreceptor etc)
• Control Centre(Brain) sets point or
normal range
• Effector changes the value through
targeted effector organs

47. Mechanism of Homeostasis System /
Control System
• Two types of Control System:
1. Negative Feedback Mechanism
2. Positive Feedback Mechanism

48. Negative Feedback Mechanism
• Here, the system reacts in such a way as to arrest the
change or reverse the direction of change
• After receiving a message, effectors send negative
feedback signals back to the system and maintain
homeostasis.
• Many homeostatic mechanisms in the body function
through negative feedback. E.g: Secretion of thyroxin
hormone, maintenance of water balances in the body, BP
maintainance, temp regulation, etc.

49. Effector
Effector

51. Positive Feedback Mechanism
• Deviation from set point occurs
• System responds to make the deviation even greater
• Creates a cycle leading the system even away from the
homeostasis
• May cause disease, death
• Occurs rarely in healthy individual

52. Positive Feedback Mechanism
• Positive feedback is the one to which the system reacts in
such a way as to increase the intensity of the change in the
same direction.
• Positive feedback is less common than the negative
feedback. However, it has its own significance
• During emergency conditions. Examples: Coagulation of
blood, contraction of uterus during labour (parturition) etc

53. Examples of Positive Feedback Mechanism
Fig: Example of Positive Feedback Mechanism: Coagulation of blood after injury

54. Example of Positive Feedback Mechanism
Moderate blood loss --> Blood Pressure ↧--> Baroreceptors
detect change in BP --> Heart rate Increases --> Balance is
maintained
Huge blood loss --> Blood Pressure ↧ --> delivery to cardiac
muscle ↧ --> Cardiac contraction ↧ --> Even Low BP -->
Heart beat stops --> DEATH

55. Roles of Feedback mechanisms
• Usually negative feedback mechanism is required to
maintain homeostasis
• Medical therapy usually aids in NFM to overcome illness
• E.g. BT reverses low BP and restores homeostasis
• Sometimes PFM is also required
• E.g. Child birth:
Baby size makes uterus enlarged --> stimulates further
contraction --> Pushes baby out --> uterus relaxed -->
[Sequence end]

56. Role of Homeostasis Systems
• The pH of extracellular fluids = 7.4 level by respiratory
system, blood and urinary system.
• Body temperature(98.6F) by respiratory, skin, digestive
and excretory system.
• Water and electrolyte balance = kidneys, skin and
gastrointestinal tract.
• The CNS plays major role in homeostasis maintenance
by integrating the information.

57. Role of Homeostasis System
• The many hormones are essential for the metabolism of
nutrients and other substances necessary for the cells.
• The skeletal muscles are also involved in homeostasis
maintenance by helping the organism to move around in
search of food, protecting the organism from adverse
surroundings, preventing damage or destruction.
• The ANS regulates all the vegetative functions of the body
essential for homeostasis maintenance