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Operating Emergency Vehicles 
Chapter 4
Driving Practices 
• The first goal of the driver/operator is to get 
the apparatus and its crew to the scene in an 
expedient yet safe and efficient manner. 
• NFPA statistics historically show that 15 % 
to 20% of all firefighter injuries and deaths 
are caused by vehicle collisions while 
responding to or returning from emergency 
calls. This equates to about 25 firefighter 
deaths a year.
Collision Statistics and Causes 
• Two studies on EMS 
providers (New York 
& Pennsylvania) 
indicate that collisions 
are most likely to 
occur during ideal 
vision and road 
conditions.
Collision Statistics and Causes 
In general, fire apparatus collisions can be 
grouped into the following five basic 
causes: 
1. Improper backing of the apparatus 
2. Reckless driving by the public 
3. Excessive Speed by the fire apparatus 
4. Lack of driving skill and experience by 
the fire apparatus driver 
5. Poor apparatus design or maintenance
Improper Backing of Apparatus 
• Large percentage of 
collisions occur while 
backing. 
• Seldom serious 
• Account for a 
significant portion of 
overall damage costs.
Reckless Driving by the Public 
Some of the more common 
problems include: 
 Failure to obey posted traffic 
regulations or directions 
 Failure to yield to 
emergency vehicles 
 Excessive speed 
 Unpredictable behavior 
created by a panic reaction 
to an approaching 
emergency vehicle 
 Inattentiveness
Excessive Speed by the 
Apparatus Driver/Operator 
• The urgency of the emergency often leads 
to the driver/operator driving the fire 
apparatus at speeds faster than should 
reasonably be used. 
• Excessive speed may lead to one of the two 
following types of collisions occurring: 
– Control of the apparatus is lost on a curve or 
adverse road surface. 
– The driver is unable to stop the apparatus in 
time to avoid a collision.
Lack of Driving Skill 
and Experience 
• Lack of driving skill may be 
attributed to a number of 
factors, including insufficient 
training and unfamiliarity with 
the vehicle . 
• Fire departments must ensure 
that all driver/operator 
candidates complete a thorough 
training program before they 
are allowed to drive fire 
apparatus under emergency 
conditions.
Lack of Driving Skill 
and Experience 
• There are a number of other factors that 
may contribute to collisions that involve 
driver error as the cause. They include: 
– Overconfidence in one’s driving ability. 
– Inability to recognize a dangerous situation. 
– False sense of security because of a good 
driving record. 
– Misunderstanding of apparatus capabilities. 
– Lack of knowledge about how to operate the 
controls of the apparatus in an emergency.
Poor Apparatus Design 
or Maintenance 
• Poor apparatus design is generally 
attributed to “homebuilt” vehicles that have 
been constructed by members of the 
department or by local mechanics. 
– Commonly these vehicles or overweight 
– Have high centers of gravity 
– On chassis that were already worn out
Poor Apparatus Design 
or Maintenance 
• Homebuilt water tenders have had a high 
incidence of serious collisions. 
– Chassis frequently are not designed for the 
weight of the water that will be carried on them. 
– Many times the water tanks are improperly 
baffled which allows the water to surge within 
the tank. This can cause the vehicle to lose 
control.
Poor Apparatus Design 
or Maintenance 
• Poor maintenance can 
lead to vehicle system 
failure which can 
cause a collision. 
– Particularly true with 
braking systems. 
– Low air pressure in 
tires and insufficient 
tire tread can also 
cause the vehicle to 
lose control.
Driving regulations 
• Driver/operators of 
fire apparatus are 
regulated by: 
– Federal law 
– State or provincial 
motor vehicle codes 
– City ordinances 
– NFPA standards 
– Departmental policies
Driving Regulations 
• Unless specifically exempt, fire apparatus 
driver/operators are subject to any statute, rule, 
regulation, or ordinance that governs any vehicle 
operator. 
• A statute may exempt emergency vehicles, 
responding to an emergency, from driving 
regulations that apply to the general public such as 
speed, direction of travel, direction of turns, and 
parking. 
• All traffic signals and rules must be obeyed when 
returning from an alarm or any other non-emergency 
driving.
Driving Regulations 
• Emergency vehicles are not 
exempt from laws that 
require vehicles to stop for 
school buses that are 
flashing signal lights to 
board or disembark 
children. 
• Fire apparatus should 
proceed only after a proper 
signal is given by the bus 
driver or police officer
Driving Regulations 
• A driver/operator who does not 
obey state, local, or 
departmental driving 
regulations can be subject to 
criminal and civil prosecution if 
involved in a collision. 
• Both the driver and the fire 
department may be held 
responsible if he/she is found 
negligent in the operation of the 
emergency vehicle.
Starting the Vehicle 
• The driver should start the 
apparatus as soon as possible so 
that it is warmed up when the 
rest of the crew is assembled 
and ready to respond. 
• Let it idle as long as possible 
before putting it in road gear. 
• For non-emergency response 
this could be 3-5 minutes; for 
emergency response this may 
only be a few seconds.
Starting the Vehicle 
• When starting the apparatus in 
any condition, but especially 
emergency response 
conditions, the first thing the 
driver/operator needs to know 
is where the apparatus is 
going. 
• The vehicle should not be 
moved until everyone is 
seated and wearing a seat belt.
Shore Lines 
• Disconnect all shore lines 
– Electrical cords – used to keep the batteries 
charged at all times 
– Air hoses – may be used to keep an adequate 
amount of air in the vehicle’s air brake system 
at all times. 
– Exhaust hoses – used to vent diesel fumes to 
the exterior of the station. 
• Some ground shore lines are designed to 
pop off automatically. Make sure that they 
release before the apparatus is moved from 
the station
Turn on the Vehicle Batteries 
 Most apparatus are equipped with a battery switch 
intended to turn off all vehicle electrical systems when 
the apparatus is parked and shutdown. The purpose of 
this switch is to prevent unwanted electrical drains on 
the battery. 
 Most apparatus are equipped with two batteries. This is 
a back up measure in case one of the batteries is dead. 
 The battery switch may have four settings: Off, 
Battery1, Battery 2, and Both. 
 Newer apparatus may have a simple on/off switch.
Start the Engine 
(Manual Transmission) 
• The driver should start the engine with the drive 
transmission in Neutral and the vehicle’s parking 
brake set. 
• Begin the process by turning on the ignition 
switch. 
• Press down on the clutch pedal and then operate 
the starter control. 
• The starter controls should be operated at 
intervals of no more than 30 seconds, with a rest 
period of 60 seconds between each try.
Start the Engine 
(Automatic Transmission) 
 The driver should start the engine with the 
drive transmission in Neutral or Park. 
 The vehicles parking brake should be set. 
 Start the process by turning on the ignition 
switch. 
 Then start the engine using the starter controls. 
 The starter controls should be operated at 
intervals of no more than 30 seconds, with a 
rest of 60 seconds between each try.
Observe the Apparatus Gauges 
• Make sure that all gauges move into their normal 
operative ranges. 
• If the oil pressure gauge doesn’t indicate any reasonable 
amount of oil pressure within 5 to 10 seconds of starting 
the apparatus, stop the engine immediately. 
• The air pressure gauge should be checked to make sure 
that adequate pressure is built up to release the parking 
brake. It may be necessary to let the engine idle until air 
pressure is built up to an appropriate level. (the low 
pressure warning signal must come on before the 
pressure drops to less than 60 psi)
Observe Apparatus Gauges
Adjust the Seat, Mirrors, and 
Steering Wheel 
• If the driver/operator was not the last person 
to drive this vehicle, he should take a 
moment while the engine is idling/warming 
to properly adjust the seat and mirrors. 
• It is generally best to adjust the seat first. 
• Once the seat is in the desired location, 
adjust the mirrors so that you can clearly 
see to the rear of the apparatus.
Driving the Manual 
Transmission Apparatus 
• Start in low gear. 
• Keep the apparatus in low gear until the proper speed or 
rpm’s is reached for shifting to a higher gear. 
• When climbing a hill shift the transmission to a lower 
gear. 
• On sharp curves or when turning corners, shift to a lower 
gear before entering the curve or corner 
• When driving downhill, select a lower gear. The engine 
provides braking power when the vehicle is in gear.
Driving the Automatic 
Transmission Apparatus 
• Move the shifter into the appropriate 
gear selection. 
• Be aware that the pressure placed upon 
the accelerator influences automatic 
shifting. 
• Driver/operators have the option of 
manually selecting a particular gear for 
operation on apparatus equipped with an 
automatic transmission.
Driving the Automatic 
Transmission Apparatus 
• Some automatic transmissions are operated with a 
stick shift. 
• New apparatus may have push-button 
transmission selectors
Cruising 
• Once moving, accelerate the vehicle gradually. 
• Attempt to maintain engine rpm control through 
correct throttling. Keeping the engine operating 
within its power curve ensures adequate power 
and optimum fuel economy. 
• Avoid lugging the engine. Lugging occurs when 
the engine cannot respond to the amount of work 
being asked for by the operator.
Cruising 
• When over-throttling occurs with a diesel 
engine, more fuel is being injected than can 
be burned. This results in an excessive 
amount of carbon particles issuing from the 
exhaust (black smoke), oil dilution, and 
additional fuel consumption.
Stopping the Apparatus 
• The process of braking fire apparatus to a 
standstill should be performed smoothly so 
that the apparatus will come to a even stop. 
• Some apparatus employ engine brakes that 
assist in braking. Because they provide 
most of the necessary slowing action, these 
devices allow the driver to limit the use of 
service brakes to emergency stops and final 
stops.
Stopping the Apparatus 
• Auxiliary braking 
devices save wear on 
the service brakes and 
make the apparatus 
easier to manage on 
hills and slippery 
roads.
Engine Idling 
• Shut the engine down rather than leave it 
idling for long periods of time. 
• Long idling time can result in the use of ½ 
gallon of fuel per hour, the build-up of 
carbon in injectors, valves, pistons, and 
valve seats; misfiring because of injector 
carboning; and damage to the turbocharger 
shaft seals. 
• When the engine must be left to idle for an 
extended period of time, set it to idle at 900 
to 1,100 rpm rather that a slower speed.
Engine Shutdown 
• Never attempt to shut down engine while the 
apparatus is in motion 
– This shuts off fuel flow and fuel flow is required for 
lubrication. 
• Never shut down immediately after full-load 
operation. 
– This results in immediate increase of engine 
temperature, oil film “burning” on hot surfaces, 
possible damage to heads and exhaust manifolds, and 
possible damage to the turbocharger.
Engine Shutdown 
• Allow the engine temperature to 
stabilize before shutdown. 
• A hot engine should be idled until it has 
cooled. 
• Generally, an idle period of 3 to 5 
minutes is recommended.
Safe Driving Techniques 
• Attitude 
• Apparatus Rider Safety 
• Backing the Vehicle 
• Defensive Driving Techniques 
• Auxiliary Braking Systems 
• Passing Other Vehicles 
• Adverse Weather 
• Warning Devices
Attitude 
• Develop a safety conscious 
attitude. 
• The driver who drives 
aggressively, failing to 
observe safety precautions. Is 
a menace to other vehicles, 
pedestrians, and other 
firefighters in the apparatus.
Attitude 
• Drivers must realize that they 
cannot demand the right-of-way, 
although they may legally have it. 
• In addition to safety aspects, the 
driver should always consider the 
public image aspects. 
• Reckless operation, degrading 
gestures, and verbal assaults 
toward members of the public will 
not assist in maintaining the 
positive image you seek.
Apparatus Rider Safety 
• The driver must always assure the safety of all 
personnel riding on the apparatus. 
• It is most desirable for riders to don their 
protective gear before getting in the apparatus. 
• NFPA 1901, Standard for Automotive Fire 
Apparatus, requires that a seat and seat belt be 
provided within the cab or body of the apparatus 
for every firefighter who is expected to ride the 
truck.
Apparatus Rider Safety 
• NFPA 1500, Standard on Fire Department 
Occupational Safety and Health Program, also 
specifically states that all riders must be seated 
and belted. The standard does, however, provide 
three exceptions to the requirement: 
– When providing patient care in the back of an 
ambulance 
– When loading hose back onto a fire apparatus 
– When training personnel to drive the tiller portion of 
a tractor-drawn aerial apparatus.
Backing the Vehicle 
• All fire departments should have firmly 
established procedures for backing the 
vehicle. 
• Whenever possible, the driver should avoid 
backing the apparatus. 
– It is normally safer and quicker to drive around 
the block and start again. 
– It is desirable to have drive-through bays that 
negate the necessity to back the apparatus into 
them.
Backing the Vehicle 
• When it is necessary to back fire apparatus, there 
should be at least one firefighter- and preferably 
two- with a portable radio or headset to clear the 
way and warn the driver of any obstacles.
Backing the Vehicle 
• If two spotters are used, only one should communicate 
with the driver. The second spotter should assist the first 
one. 
• Very simply, if you cannot see the spotters, do not back 
the apparatus! 
• All fire apparatus should be equipped with a back up 
alarm.
Defensive Driving Techniques 
• Sound defensive driving skills are one of the 
most important aspects of safe driving. 
• Every driver should be familiar with the basic 
concepts of defensive driving which include: 
– Anticipating other drivers’ actions 
– Estimating visual lead time 
– Knowing braking and reaction times 
– Combating skids 
– Knowing evasive tactics 
– Having knowledge of weight transfer
Defensive Driving Techniques 
• The driver should know the rules that 
govern the general public when emergency 
vehicles are on the road. 
– Most laws provide that other vehicles must pull 
toward the right and remain at a standstill until 
the emergency vehicle has passed. 
• People may panic at the sound of an 
approaching emergency vehicle or may not 
hear the warning signals at all.
Defensive Driving Techniques 
• Intersections are the most likely place that an emergency 
vehicle will have a collision. 
– The driver should slow the vehicle to where a complete stop 
can be made if necessary. 
– The driver should stop the apparatus, even when faced with a 
green light, if the view of the intersection is obstructed. 
• A fire apparatus making an emergency response, may 
proceed through a red traffic signal or stop sign after 
coming to a complete stop and assuring that all lanes of 
traffic are accounted for and yielding to the apparatus.
Defensive Driving Techniques 
• Where all lanes of traffic are blocked in the 
same direction as the fire apparatus is traveling, 
the driver should move the apparatus into the 
opposing lane of traffic and proceed at an 
extremely reduced speed. 
– All warning devices must be used. 
– Where oncoming traffic will not be able to see the 
apparatus, this procedure is not recommended. 
– The driver must be alert for traffic that may enter 
from access roads and driveways.
Defensive Driving Techniques 
• The use of warning sirens, 
lights and signals is 
essential. 
• The driver must realize 
that these signals may be 
blanketed by other 
warning devices and by 
street noises. 
• Serious collisions have 
occurred due to over 
reliance on warning 
signals.
Anticipating Other 
Drivers’ Actions 
• Never assume what 
another driver’s actions 
will be 
• Expect the unexpected 
• Anticipation is the key 
to safe driving.
Anticipating Other 
Drivers’ Actions 
• Always remember the following control factors: 
– Aim high in steering: Find a safe path will ahead. 
– Get the big picture: Stay back and see it all. 
– Keep your eyes moving: Scan – do not stare. 
– Leave yourself an “out”: Be prepared by expecting the 
unexpected. 
– Make sure that others can see and hear you: Use 
lights, horn and signals in combination.
Visual Lead Time 
• Visual lead time refers to the driver scanning far enough 
ahead, for the speed which is being driven, to assure that 
appropriate action can be taken if necessary. 
– The driver needs to learn to match the speed he is traveling with 
the distance ahead of the vehicle he is surveying. 
• Visual lead time interacts directly with reaction time and 
stopping distances. 
– By “aiming high in steering” and “getting the big picture”, it is 
possible to become more keenly aware of conditions that may 
require slowing or stopping.
Braking and Reaction Time 
• A driver should know 
the total stopping 
distance for a 
particular fire 
apparatus. 
• The total stopping 
distance is the sum of 
the driver reaction 
distance and the 
vehicle braking 
distance
Braking and Reaction Time 
• The driver reaction distance is the distance 
a vehicle travels while the driver is 
transferring the foot from the accelerator to 
the brake after perceiving the need to stop. 
• The braking distance is the distance the 
vehicle travels from the time the brakes are 
applied until the apparatus comes to a 
complete stop.
Braking Distance 
• There are a number of factors that 
influence the drivers ability to stop. 
– Condition of the driving surface. 
– Speed of the apparatus. 
– Weight of the vehicle. 
– Type and condition of the braking system.
Weight Transfer 
• Weight transfer occurs as the result of 
physical laws that state that objects in 
motion tend to stay in motion; objects at 
rest tend to remain at rest. 
– When a vehicle undergoes a change in velocity 
or direction, weight transfer takes place relative 
to the severity of change.
Weight Transfer 
• Weight transfer can contribute to skidding 
or possible rollover. These conditions can 
result from too much speed in turns, harsh 
or abrupt steering action, or driving on 
slopes too steep for a particular apparatus. 
– Steering should be smooth and continuous. 
– Maintain a speed that is slow enough to prevent 
severe weight transfer from occurring. This is 
particularly important on curves.
Combating Skids 
• The best way to combat skidding is to avoid 
the conditions that lead to skidding. 
• The most common causes of skids involve 
driver error: 
– Driving to fast for road conditions. 
– Failing to properly appreciate weight shifts. 
– Improper use of auxiliary braking devices. 
– Improper tread depth and tire pressure.
Combating Skids 
• Most newer apparatus are equipped with 
antilock braking systems (ABS). 
• When driving a vehicle equipped with an 
ABS, maintain a steady pressure on the 
brake pedal (rather than pumping the pedal) 
until the apparatus is brought to a complete 
halt.
Combating Skids 
• When an apparatus not equipped with ABS 
goes into a skid; release the brakes, and turn 
the apparatus steering wheel so that the 
front wheels face in the direction of the 
skid.
Auxiliary Braking Systems 
• The front brake-limiting valve type commonly 
known as the “dry road/slippery road” switch, 
reduced the air pressure on the front steering axle 
by 50% when activated. 
– This would prevent the front wheels from locking up, 
allowing the driver to steer the apparatus even if the 
back wheels were locked into a skid. 
– In actuality, it reduced the braking system by 25% 
which on a braking system that was not in optimum 
condition could cause the driver to be unable to stop.
Auxiliary Braking Systems 
• Another type is the inter-axle differential 
lock, also known as a power divider or third 
differential. This is another type of switch 
that can be activated from the cab. 
– It allows for a difference in speed between the 
two rear axles, while providing pulling power 
from each axle. This is intended to provide 
greater traction for each axle.
Auxiliary Braking Systems 
• Automatic traction control (ATC) is 
equipped on some vehicles with ABS. 
• ATC helps improve traction on slippery 
roads by reducing drive wheel over spin. 
– ATC works automatically in two ways: When 
the drive wheel starts to spin, the ATC applies 
air pressure to brake the wheel. The ATC also 
reduces the engine torque to provide improved 
traction.
Passing Other Vehicles 
• In general, it is best to avoid passing vehicles that are not 
pulling over to yield the right-of-way. 
• If the driver must pass; these guidelines should be used 
to ensure safe passing: 
– Always travel on the innermost lanes on multi-lane roads. 
– Avoid passing vehicles on their right sides. 
– Make sure you can see that the opposing lanes are clear of 
traffic. 
– Avoid passing other emergency vehicles if at all possible. 
– Flash your high beams to get the other drivers attention.
Adverse Weather 
• Rain, snow, ice, and 
mud make roads 
slippery. 
• A driver must recognize 
these dangers and adjust 
the apparatus speed 
according to the crown 
of the road, sharpness of 
the curves and condition 
of the road surface.
Adverse Weather 
• Remember that it takes 
3 to 15 times more 
distance for a vehicle 
to come to a complete 
stop on snow and ice 
than it does on dry 
concrete.
Warning Devices 
• All fire apparatus are equipped 
with a combination of visual 
and audible warning devices 
• Audible warning devices may 
include: 
– Air horns 
– Bells 
– Mechanical sirens 
– Electronic sirens
Warning Devices 
• Studies show that civilian 
drivers react better to sounds 
that change pitch often. 
• At speeds above 50 mph, an 
emergency vehicle may 
outrun the effective range of 
its audible warning device. 
• At 40 mph a siren can project 
300 feet in front of a vehicle, 
at 60 mph the siren is only 
audible 12 feet or less in 
front of the vehicle.
Warning Devices 
• White lights can be distinguished during day light 
hours, therefore headlights should be turned on 
while responding. 
• A spot light moving across the back window of a 
vehicle; rapidly gains the driver’s attention. 
– The spot light should not be left shinning on the 
vehicle, because this blinds the driver.
Warning Devices 
• The trend in recent years has been to 
equip apparatus with a large amount of 
visual warning devices. 
– This quantity has proven effective during 
response. 
– However, the large quantity of lights has 
over powered the effectiveness of 
firefighters’ protective trim. Therefore it is 
desirable to turn off some of the lights on 
the apparatus once it is parked.
Warning Devices 
• Some apparatus have been equipped with yellow 
warning lights that are turned on when the 
apparatus is parked on the scene. 
• The red flashing and strobe lights can be turned 
off which allows approaching vehicles headlights 
to more effectively illuminate the reflective trim 
worn by firefighters.

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Chapter 4 operating emergency vehicles

  • 2. Driving Practices • The first goal of the driver/operator is to get the apparatus and its crew to the scene in an expedient yet safe and efficient manner. • NFPA statistics historically show that 15 % to 20% of all firefighter injuries and deaths are caused by vehicle collisions while responding to or returning from emergency calls. This equates to about 25 firefighter deaths a year.
  • 3. Collision Statistics and Causes • Two studies on EMS providers (New York & Pennsylvania) indicate that collisions are most likely to occur during ideal vision and road conditions.
  • 4. Collision Statistics and Causes In general, fire apparatus collisions can be grouped into the following five basic causes: 1. Improper backing of the apparatus 2. Reckless driving by the public 3. Excessive Speed by the fire apparatus 4. Lack of driving skill and experience by the fire apparatus driver 5. Poor apparatus design or maintenance
  • 5. Improper Backing of Apparatus • Large percentage of collisions occur while backing. • Seldom serious • Account for a significant portion of overall damage costs.
  • 6. Reckless Driving by the Public Some of the more common problems include:  Failure to obey posted traffic regulations or directions  Failure to yield to emergency vehicles  Excessive speed  Unpredictable behavior created by a panic reaction to an approaching emergency vehicle  Inattentiveness
  • 7. Excessive Speed by the Apparatus Driver/Operator • The urgency of the emergency often leads to the driver/operator driving the fire apparatus at speeds faster than should reasonably be used. • Excessive speed may lead to one of the two following types of collisions occurring: – Control of the apparatus is lost on a curve or adverse road surface. – The driver is unable to stop the apparatus in time to avoid a collision.
  • 8. Lack of Driving Skill and Experience • Lack of driving skill may be attributed to a number of factors, including insufficient training and unfamiliarity with the vehicle . • Fire departments must ensure that all driver/operator candidates complete a thorough training program before they are allowed to drive fire apparatus under emergency conditions.
  • 9. Lack of Driving Skill and Experience • There are a number of other factors that may contribute to collisions that involve driver error as the cause. They include: – Overconfidence in one’s driving ability. – Inability to recognize a dangerous situation. – False sense of security because of a good driving record. – Misunderstanding of apparatus capabilities. – Lack of knowledge about how to operate the controls of the apparatus in an emergency.
  • 10. Poor Apparatus Design or Maintenance • Poor apparatus design is generally attributed to “homebuilt” vehicles that have been constructed by members of the department or by local mechanics. – Commonly these vehicles or overweight – Have high centers of gravity – On chassis that were already worn out
  • 11. Poor Apparatus Design or Maintenance • Homebuilt water tenders have had a high incidence of serious collisions. – Chassis frequently are not designed for the weight of the water that will be carried on them. – Many times the water tanks are improperly baffled which allows the water to surge within the tank. This can cause the vehicle to lose control.
  • 12. Poor Apparatus Design or Maintenance • Poor maintenance can lead to vehicle system failure which can cause a collision. – Particularly true with braking systems. – Low air pressure in tires and insufficient tire tread can also cause the vehicle to lose control.
  • 13. Driving regulations • Driver/operators of fire apparatus are regulated by: – Federal law – State or provincial motor vehicle codes – City ordinances – NFPA standards – Departmental policies
  • 14. Driving Regulations • Unless specifically exempt, fire apparatus driver/operators are subject to any statute, rule, regulation, or ordinance that governs any vehicle operator. • A statute may exempt emergency vehicles, responding to an emergency, from driving regulations that apply to the general public such as speed, direction of travel, direction of turns, and parking. • All traffic signals and rules must be obeyed when returning from an alarm or any other non-emergency driving.
  • 15. Driving Regulations • Emergency vehicles are not exempt from laws that require vehicles to stop for school buses that are flashing signal lights to board or disembark children. • Fire apparatus should proceed only after a proper signal is given by the bus driver or police officer
  • 16. Driving Regulations • A driver/operator who does not obey state, local, or departmental driving regulations can be subject to criminal and civil prosecution if involved in a collision. • Both the driver and the fire department may be held responsible if he/she is found negligent in the operation of the emergency vehicle.
  • 17. Starting the Vehicle • The driver should start the apparatus as soon as possible so that it is warmed up when the rest of the crew is assembled and ready to respond. • Let it idle as long as possible before putting it in road gear. • For non-emergency response this could be 3-5 minutes; for emergency response this may only be a few seconds.
  • 18. Starting the Vehicle • When starting the apparatus in any condition, but especially emergency response conditions, the first thing the driver/operator needs to know is where the apparatus is going. • The vehicle should not be moved until everyone is seated and wearing a seat belt.
  • 19. Shore Lines • Disconnect all shore lines – Electrical cords – used to keep the batteries charged at all times – Air hoses – may be used to keep an adequate amount of air in the vehicle’s air brake system at all times. – Exhaust hoses – used to vent diesel fumes to the exterior of the station. • Some ground shore lines are designed to pop off automatically. Make sure that they release before the apparatus is moved from the station
  • 20. Turn on the Vehicle Batteries  Most apparatus are equipped with a battery switch intended to turn off all vehicle electrical systems when the apparatus is parked and shutdown. The purpose of this switch is to prevent unwanted electrical drains on the battery.  Most apparatus are equipped with two batteries. This is a back up measure in case one of the batteries is dead.  The battery switch may have four settings: Off, Battery1, Battery 2, and Both.  Newer apparatus may have a simple on/off switch.
  • 21. Start the Engine (Manual Transmission) • The driver should start the engine with the drive transmission in Neutral and the vehicle’s parking brake set. • Begin the process by turning on the ignition switch. • Press down on the clutch pedal and then operate the starter control. • The starter controls should be operated at intervals of no more than 30 seconds, with a rest period of 60 seconds between each try.
  • 22. Start the Engine (Automatic Transmission)  The driver should start the engine with the drive transmission in Neutral or Park.  The vehicles parking brake should be set.  Start the process by turning on the ignition switch.  Then start the engine using the starter controls.  The starter controls should be operated at intervals of no more than 30 seconds, with a rest of 60 seconds between each try.
  • 23. Observe the Apparatus Gauges • Make sure that all gauges move into their normal operative ranges. • If the oil pressure gauge doesn’t indicate any reasonable amount of oil pressure within 5 to 10 seconds of starting the apparatus, stop the engine immediately. • The air pressure gauge should be checked to make sure that adequate pressure is built up to release the parking brake. It may be necessary to let the engine idle until air pressure is built up to an appropriate level. (the low pressure warning signal must come on before the pressure drops to less than 60 psi)
  • 25. Adjust the Seat, Mirrors, and Steering Wheel • If the driver/operator was not the last person to drive this vehicle, he should take a moment while the engine is idling/warming to properly adjust the seat and mirrors. • It is generally best to adjust the seat first. • Once the seat is in the desired location, adjust the mirrors so that you can clearly see to the rear of the apparatus.
  • 26. Driving the Manual Transmission Apparatus • Start in low gear. • Keep the apparatus in low gear until the proper speed or rpm’s is reached for shifting to a higher gear. • When climbing a hill shift the transmission to a lower gear. • On sharp curves or when turning corners, shift to a lower gear before entering the curve or corner • When driving downhill, select a lower gear. The engine provides braking power when the vehicle is in gear.
  • 27. Driving the Automatic Transmission Apparatus • Move the shifter into the appropriate gear selection. • Be aware that the pressure placed upon the accelerator influences automatic shifting. • Driver/operators have the option of manually selecting a particular gear for operation on apparatus equipped with an automatic transmission.
  • 28. Driving the Automatic Transmission Apparatus • Some automatic transmissions are operated with a stick shift. • New apparatus may have push-button transmission selectors
  • 29. Cruising • Once moving, accelerate the vehicle gradually. • Attempt to maintain engine rpm control through correct throttling. Keeping the engine operating within its power curve ensures adequate power and optimum fuel economy. • Avoid lugging the engine. Lugging occurs when the engine cannot respond to the amount of work being asked for by the operator.
  • 30. Cruising • When over-throttling occurs with a diesel engine, more fuel is being injected than can be burned. This results in an excessive amount of carbon particles issuing from the exhaust (black smoke), oil dilution, and additional fuel consumption.
  • 31. Stopping the Apparatus • The process of braking fire apparatus to a standstill should be performed smoothly so that the apparatus will come to a even stop. • Some apparatus employ engine brakes that assist in braking. Because they provide most of the necessary slowing action, these devices allow the driver to limit the use of service brakes to emergency stops and final stops.
  • 32. Stopping the Apparatus • Auxiliary braking devices save wear on the service brakes and make the apparatus easier to manage on hills and slippery roads.
  • 33. Engine Idling • Shut the engine down rather than leave it idling for long periods of time. • Long idling time can result in the use of ½ gallon of fuel per hour, the build-up of carbon in injectors, valves, pistons, and valve seats; misfiring because of injector carboning; and damage to the turbocharger shaft seals. • When the engine must be left to idle for an extended period of time, set it to idle at 900 to 1,100 rpm rather that a slower speed.
  • 34. Engine Shutdown • Never attempt to shut down engine while the apparatus is in motion – This shuts off fuel flow and fuel flow is required for lubrication. • Never shut down immediately after full-load operation. – This results in immediate increase of engine temperature, oil film “burning” on hot surfaces, possible damage to heads and exhaust manifolds, and possible damage to the turbocharger.
  • 35. Engine Shutdown • Allow the engine temperature to stabilize before shutdown. • A hot engine should be idled until it has cooled. • Generally, an idle period of 3 to 5 minutes is recommended.
  • 36. Safe Driving Techniques • Attitude • Apparatus Rider Safety • Backing the Vehicle • Defensive Driving Techniques • Auxiliary Braking Systems • Passing Other Vehicles • Adverse Weather • Warning Devices
  • 37. Attitude • Develop a safety conscious attitude. • The driver who drives aggressively, failing to observe safety precautions. Is a menace to other vehicles, pedestrians, and other firefighters in the apparatus.
  • 38. Attitude • Drivers must realize that they cannot demand the right-of-way, although they may legally have it. • In addition to safety aspects, the driver should always consider the public image aspects. • Reckless operation, degrading gestures, and verbal assaults toward members of the public will not assist in maintaining the positive image you seek.
  • 39. Apparatus Rider Safety • The driver must always assure the safety of all personnel riding on the apparatus. • It is most desirable for riders to don their protective gear before getting in the apparatus. • NFPA 1901, Standard for Automotive Fire Apparatus, requires that a seat and seat belt be provided within the cab or body of the apparatus for every firefighter who is expected to ride the truck.
  • 40. Apparatus Rider Safety • NFPA 1500, Standard on Fire Department Occupational Safety and Health Program, also specifically states that all riders must be seated and belted. The standard does, however, provide three exceptions to the requirement: – When providing patient care in the back of an ambulance – When loading hose back onto a fire apparatus – When training personnel to drive the tiller portion of a tractor-drawn aerial apparatus.
  • 41. Backing the Vehicle • All fire departments should have firmly established procedures for backing the vehicle. • Whenever possible, the driver should avoid backing the apparatus. – It is normally safer and quicker to drive around the block and start again. – It is desirable to have drive-through bays that negate the necessity to back the apparatus into them.
  • 42. Backing the Vehicle • When it is necessary to back fire apparatus, there should be at least one firefighter- and preferably two- with a portable radio or headset to clear the way and warn the driver of any obstacles.
  • 43. Backing the Vehicle • If two spotters are used, only one should communicate with the driver. The second spotter should assist the first one. • Very simply, if you cannot see the spotters, do not back the apparatus! • All fire apparatus should be equipped with a back up alarm.
  • 44. Defensive Driving Techniques • Sound defensive driving skills are one of the most important aspects of safe driving. • Every driver should be familiar with the basic concepts of defensive driving which include: – Anticipating other drivers’ actions – Estimating visual lead time – Knowing braking and reaction times – Combating skids – Knowing evasive tactics – Having knowledge of weight transfer
  • 45. Defensive Driving Techniques • The driver should know the rules that govern the general public when emergency vehicles are on the road. – Most laws provide that other vehicles must pull toward the right and remain at a standstill until the emergency vehicle has passed. • People may panic at the sound of an approaching emergency vehicle or may not hear the warning signals at all.
  • 46. Defensive Driving Techniques • Intersections are the most likely place that an emergency vehicle will have a collision. – The driver should slow the vehicle to where a complete stop can be made if necessary. – The driver should stop the apparatus, even when faced with a green light, if the view of the intersection is obstructed. • A fire apparatus making an emergency response, may proceed through a red traffic signal or stop sign after coming to a complete stop and assuring that all lanes of traffic are accounted for and yielding to the apparatus.
  • 47. Defensive Driving Techniques • Where all lanes of traffic are blocked in the same direction as the fire apparatus is traveling, the driver should move the apparatus into the opposing lane of traffic and proceed at an extremely reduced speed. – All warning devices must be used. – Where oncoming traffic will not be able to see the apparatus, this procedure is not recommended. – The driver must be alert for traffic that may enter from access roads and driveways.
  • 48. Defensive Driving Techniques • The use of warning sirens, lights and signals is essential. • The driver must realize that these signals may be blanketed by other warning devices and by street noises. • Serious collisions have occurred due to over reliance on warning signals.
  • 49. Anticipating Other Drivers’ Actions • Never assume what another driver’s actions will be • Expect the unexpected • Anticipation is the key to safe driving.
  • 50. Anticipating Other Drivers’ Actions • Always remember the following control factors: – Aim high in steering: Find a safe path will ahead. – Get the big picture: Stay back and see it all. – Keep your eyes moving: Scan – do not stare. – Leave yourself an “out”: Be prepared by expecting the unexpected. – Make sure that others can see and hear you: Use lights, horn and signals in combination.
  • 51. Visual Lead Time • Visual lead time refers to the driver scanning far enough ahead, for the speed which is being driven, to assure that appropriate action can be taken if necessary. – The driver needs to learn to match the speed he is traveling with the distance ahead of the vehicle he is surveying. • Visual lead time interacts directly with reaction time and stopping distances. – By “aiming high in steering” and “getting the big picture”, it is possible to become more keenly aware of conditions that may require slowing or stopping.
  • 52. Braking and Reaction Time • A driver should know the total stopping distance for a particular fire apparatus. • The total stopping distance is the sum of the driver reaction distance and the vehicle braking distance
  • 53. Braking and Reaction Time • The driver reaction distance is the distance a vehicle travels while the driver is transferring the foot from the accelerator to the brake after perceiving the need to stop. • The braking distance is the distance the vehicle travels from the time the brakes are applied until the apparatus comes to a complete stop.
  • 54. Braking Distance • There are a number of factors that influence the drivers ability to stop. – Condition of the driving surface. – Speed of the apparatus. – Weight of the vehicle. – Type and condition of the braking system.
  • 55. Weight Transfer • Weight transfer occurs as the result of physical laws that state that objects in motion tend to stay in motion; objects at rest tend to remain at rest. – When a vehicle undergoes a change in velocity or direction, weight transfer takes place relative to the severity of change.
  • 56. Weight Transfer • Weight transfer can contribute to skidding or possible rollover. These conditions can result from too much speed in turns, harsh or abrupt steering action, or driving on slopes too steep for a particular apparatus. – Steering should be smooth and continuous. – Maintain a speed that is slow enough to prevent severe weight transfer from occurring. This is particularly important on curves.
  • 57. Combating Skids • The best way to combat skidding is to avoid the conditions that lead to skidding. • The most common causes of skids involve driver error: – Driving to fast for road conditions. – Failing to properly appreciate weight shifts. – Improper use of auxiliary braking devices. – Improper tread depth and tire pressure.
  • 58. Combating Skids • Most newer apparatus are equipped with antilock braking systems (ABS). • When driving a vehicle equipped with an ABS, maintain a steady pressure on the brake pedal (rather than pumping the pedal) until the apparatus is brought to a complete halt.
  • 59. Combating Skids • When an apparatus not equipped with ABS goes into a skid; release the brakes, and turn the apparatus steering wheel so that the front wheels face in the direction of the skid.
  • 60. Auxiliary Braking Systems • The front brake-limiting valve type commonly known as the “dry road/slippery road” switch, reduced the air pressure on the front steering axle by 50% when activated. – This would prevent the front wheels from locking up, allowing the driver to steer the apparatus even if the back wheels were locked into a skid. – In actuality, it reduced the braking system by 25% which on a braking system that was not in optimum condition could cause the driver to be unable to stop.
  • 61. Auxiliary Braking Systems • Another type is the inter-axle differential lock, also known as a power divider or third differential. This is another type of switch that can be activated from the cab. – It allows for a difference in speed between the two rear axles, while providing pulling power from each axle. This is intended to provide greater traction for each axle.
  • 62. Auxiliary Braking Systems • Automatic traction control (ATC) is equipped on some vehicles with ABS. • ATC helps improve traction on slippery roads by reducing drive wheel over spin. – ATC works automatically in two ways: When the drive wheel starts to spin, the ATC applies air pressure to brake the wheel. The ATC also reduces the engine torque to provide improved traction.
  • 63. Passing Other Vehicles • In general, it is best to avoid passing vehicles that are not pulling over to yield the right-of-way. • If the driver must pass; these guidelines should be used to ensure safe passing: – Always travel on the innermost lanes on multi-lane roads. – Avoid passing vehicles on their right sides. – Make sure you can see that the opposing lanes are clear of traffic. – Avoid passing other emergency vehicles if at all possible. – Flash your high beams to get the other drivers attention.
  • 64. Adverse Weather • Rain, snow, ice, and mud make roads slippery. • A driver must recognize these dangers and adjust the apparatus speed according to the crown of the road, sharpness of the curves and condition of the road surface.
  • 65. Adverse Weather • Remember that it takes 3 to 15 times more distance for a vehicle to come to a complete stop on snow and ice than it does on dry concrete.
  • 66. Warning Devices • All fire apparatus are equipped with a combination of visual and audible warning devices • Audible warning devices may include: – Air horns – Bells – Mechanical sirens – Electronic sirens
  • 67. Warning Devices • Studies show that civilian drivers react better to sounds that change pitch often. • At speeds above 50 mph, an emergency vehicle may outrun the effective range of its audible warning device. • At 40 mph a siren can project 300 feet in front of a vehicle, at 60 mph the siren is only audible 12 feet or less in front of the vehicle.
  • 68. Warning Devices • White lights can be distinguished during day light hours, therefore headlights should be turned on while responding. • A spot light moving across the back window of a vehicle; rapidly gains the driver’s attention. – The spot light should not be left shinning on the vehicle, because this blinds the driver.
  • 69. Warning Devices • The trend in recent years has been to equip apparatus with a large amount of visual warning devices. – This quantity has proven effective during response. – However, the large quantity of lights has over powered the effectiveness of firefighters’ protective trim. Therefore it is desirable to turn off some of the lights on the apparatus once it is parked.
  • 70. Warning Devices • Some apparatus have been equipped with yellow warning lights that are turned on when the apparatus is parked on the scene. • The red flashing and strobe lights can be turned off which allows approaching vehicles headlights to more effectively illuminate the reflective trim worn by firefighters.