2. Driving Practices
• The first goal of the driver/operator is to get
the apparatus and its crew to the scene in an
expedient yet safe and efficient manner.
• NFPA statistics historically show that 15 %
to 20% of all firefighter injuries and deaths
are caused by vehicle collisions while
responding to or returning from emergency
calls. This equates to about 25 firefighter
deaths a year.
3. Collision Statistics and Causes
• Two studies on EMS
providers (New York
& Pennsylvania)
indicate that collisions
are most likely to
occur during ideal
vision and road
conditions.
4. Collision Statistics and Causes
In general, fire apparatus collisions can be
grouped into the following five basic
causes:
1. Improper backing of the apparatus
2. Reckless driving by the public
3. Excessive Speed by the fire apparatus
4. Lack of driving skill and experience by
the fire apparatus driver
5. Poor apparatus design or maintenance
5. Improper Backing of Apparatus
• Large percentage of
collisions occur while
backing.
• Seldom serious
• Account for a
significant portion of
overall damage costs.
6. Reckless Driving by the Public
Some of the more common
problems include:
Failure to obey posted traffic
regulations or directions
Failure to yield to
emergency vehicles
Excessive speed
Unpredictable behavior
created by a panic reaction
to an approaching
emergency vehicle
Inattentiveness
7. Excessive Speed by the
Apparatus Driver/Operator
• The urgency of the emergency often leads
to the driver/operator driving the fire
apparatus at speeds faster than should
reasonably be used.
• Excessive speed may lead to one of the two
following types of collisions occurring:
– Control of the apparatus is lost on a curve or
adverse road surface.
– The driver is unable to stop the apparatus in
time to avoid a collision.
8. Lack of Driving Skill
and Experience
• Lack of driving skill may be
attributed to a number of
factors, including insufficient
training and unfamiliarity with
the vehicle .
• Fire departments must ensure
that all driver/operator
candidates complete a thorough
training program before they
are allowed to drive fire
apparatus under emergency
conditions.
9. Lack of Driving Skill
and Experience
• There are a number of other factors that
may contribute to collisions that involve
driver error as the cause. They include:
– Overconfidence in one’s driving ability.
– Inability to recognize a dangerous situation.
– False sense of security because of a good
driving record.
– Misunderstanding of apparatus capabilities.
– Lack of knowledge about how to operate the
controls of the apparatus in an emergency.
10. Poor Apparatus Design
or Maintenance
• Poor apparatus design is generally
attributed to “homebuilt” vehicles that have
been constructed by members of the
department or by local mechanics.
– Commonly these vehicles or overweight
– Have high centers of gravity
– On chassis that were already worn out
11. Poor Apparatus Design
or Maintenance
• Homebuilt water tenders have had a high
incidence of serious collisions.
– Chassis frequently are not designed for the
weight of the water that will be carried on them.
– Many times the water tanks are improperly
baffled which allows the water to surge within
the tank. This can cause the vehicle to lose
control.
12. Poor Apparatus Design
or Maintenance
• Poor maintenance can
lead to vehicle system
failure which can
cause a collision.
– Particularly true with
braking systems.
– Low air pressure in
tires and insufficient
tire tread can also
cause the vehicle to
lose control.
13. Driving regulations
• Driver/operators of
fire apparatus are
regulated by:
– Federal law
– State or provincial
motor vehicle codes
– City ordinances
– NFPA standards
– Departmental policies
14. Driving Regulations
• Unless specifically exempt, fire apparatus
driver/operators are subject to any statute, rule,
regulation, or ordinance that governs any vehicle
operator.
• A statute may exempt emergency vehicles,
responding to an emergency, from driving
regulations that apply to the general public such as
speed, direction of travel, direction of turns, and
parking.
• All traffic signals and rules must be obeyed when
returning from an alarm or any other non-emergency
driving.
15. Driving Regulations
• Emergency vehicles are not
exempt from laws that
require vehicles to stop for
school buses that are
flashing signal lights to
board or disembark
children.
• Fire apparatus should
proceed only after a proper
signal is given by the bus
driver or police officer
16. Driving Regulations
• A driver/operator who does not
obey state, local, or
departmental driving
regulations can be subject to
criminal and civil prosecution if
involved in a collision.
• Both the driver and the fire
department may be held
responsible if he/she is found
negligent in the operation of the
emergency vehicle.
17. Starting the Vehicle
• The driver should start the
apparatus as soon as possible so
that it is warmed up when the
rest of the crew is assembled
and ready to respond.
• Let it idle as long as possible
before putting it in road gear.
• For non-emergency response
this could be 3-5 minutes; for
emergency response this may
only be a few seconds.
18. Starting the Vehicle
• When starting the apparatus in
any condition, but especially
emergency response
conditions, the first thing the
driver/operator needs to know
is where the apparatus is
going.
• The vehicle should not be
moved until everyone is
seated and wearing a seat belt.
19. Shore Lines
• Disconnect all shore lines
– Electrical cords – used to keep the batteries
charged at all times
– Air hoses – may be used to keep an adequate
amount of air in the vehicle’s air brake system
at all times.
– Exhaust hoses – used to vent diesel fumes to
the exterior of the station.
• Some ground shore lines are designed to
pop off automatically. Make sure that they
release before the apparatus is moved from
the station
20. Turn on the Vehicle Batteries
Most apparatus are equipped with a battery switch
intended to turn off all vehicle electrical systems when
the apparatus is parked and shutdown. The purpose of
this switch is to prevent unwanted electrical drains on
the battery.
Most apparatus are equipped with two batteries. This is
a back up measure in case one of the batteries is dead.
The battery switch may have four settings: Off,
Battery1, Battery 2, and Both.
Newer apparatus may have a simple on/off switch.
21. Start the Engine
(Manual Transmission)
• The driver should start the engine with the drive
transmission in Neutral and the vehicle’s parking
brake set.
• Begin the process by turning on the ignition
switch.
• Press down on the clutch pedal and then operate
the starter control.
• The starter controls should be operated at
intervals of no more than 30 seconds, with a rest
period of 60 seconds between each try.
22. Start the Engine
(Automatic Transmission)
The driver should start the engine with the
drive transmission in Neutral or Park.
The vehicles parking brake should be set.
Start the process by turning on the ignition
switch.
Then start the engine using the starter controls.
The starter controls should be operated at
intervals of no more than 30 seconds, with a
rest of 60 seconds between each try.
23. Observe the Apparatus Gauges
• Make sure that all gauges move into their normal
operative ranges.
• If the oil pressure gauge doesn’t indicate any reasonable
amount of oil pressure within 5 to 10 seconds of starting
the apparatus, stop the engine immediately.
• The air pressure gauge should be checked to make sure
that adequate pressure is built up to release the parking
brake. It may be necessary to let the engine idle until air
pressure is built up to an appropriate level. (the low
pressure warning signal must come on before the
pressure drops to less than 60 psi)
25. Adjust the Seat, Mirrors, and
Steering Wheel
• If the driver/operator was not the last person
to drive this vehicle, he should take a
moment while the engine is idling/warming
to properly adjust the seat and mirrors.
• It is generally best to adjust the seat first.
• Once the seat is in the desired location,
adjust the mirrors so that you can clearly
see to the rear of the apparatus.
26. Driving the Manual
Transmission Apparatus
• Start in low gear.
• Keep the apparatus in low gear until the proper speed or
rpm’s is reached for shifting to a higher gear.
• When climbing a hill shift the transmission to a lower
gear.
• On sharp curves or when turning corners, shift to a lower
gear before entering the curve or corner
• When driving downhill, select a lower gear. The engine
provides braking power when the vehicle is in gear.
27. Driving the Automatic
Transmission Apparatus
• Move the shifter into the appropriate
gear selection.
• Be aware that the pressure placed upon
the accelerator influences automatic
shifting.
• Driver/operators have the option of
manually selecting a particular gear for
operation on apparatus equipped with an
automatic transmission.
28. Driving the Automatic
Transmission Apparatus
• Some automatic transmissions are operated with a
stick shift.
• New apparatus may have push-button
transmission selectors
29. Cruising
• Once moving, accelerate the vehicle gradually.
• Attempt to maintain engine rpm control through
correct throttling. Keeping the engine operating
within its power curve ensures adequate power
and optimum fuel economy.
• Avoid lugging the engine. Lugging occurs when
the engine cannot respond to the amount of work
being asked for by the operator.
30. Cruising
• When over-throttling occurs with a diesel
engine, more fuel is being injected than can
be burned. This results in an excessive
amount of carbon particles issuing from the
exhaust (black smoke), oil dilution, and
additional fuel consumption.
31. Stopping the Apparatus
• The process of braking fire apparatus to a
standstill should be performed smoothly so
that the apparatus will come to a even stop.
• Some apparatus employ engine brakes that
assist in braking. Because they provide
most of the necessary slowing action, these
devices allow the driver to limit the use of
service brakes to emergency stops and final
stops.
32. Stopping the Apparatus
• Auxiliary braking
devices save wear on
the service brakes and
make the apparatus
easier to manage on
hills and slippery
roads.
33. Engine Idling
• Shut the engine down rather than leave it
idling for long periods of time.
• Long idling time can result in the use of ½
gallon of fuel per hour, the build-up of
carbon in injectors, valves, pistons, and
valve seats; misfiring because of injector
carboning; and damage to the turbocharger
shaft seals.
• When the engine must be left to idle for an
extended period of time, set it to idle at 900
to 1,100 rpm rather that a slower speed.
34. Engine Shutdown
• Never attempt to shut down engine while the
apparatus is in motion
– This shuts off fuel flow and fuel flow is required for
lubrication.
• Never shut down immediately after full-load
operation.
– This results in immediate increase of engine
temperature, oil film “burning” on hot surfaces,
possible damage to heads and exhaust manifolds, and
possible damage to the turbocharger.
35. Engine Shutdown
• Allow the engine temperature to
stabilize before shutdown.
• A hot engine should be idled until it has
cooled.
• Generally, an idle period of 3 to 5
minutes is recommended.
37. Attitude
• Develop a safety conscious
attitude.
• The driver who drives
aggressively, failing to
observe safety precautions. Is
a menace to other vehicles,
pedestrians, and other
firefighters in the apparatus.
38. Attitude
• Drivers must realize that they
cannot demand the right-of-way,
although they may legally have it.
• In addition to safety aspects, the
driver should always consider the
public image aspects.
• Reckless operation, degrading
gestures, and verbal assaults
toward members of the public will
not assist in maintaining the
positive image you seek.
39. Apparatus Rider Safety
• The driver must always assure the safety of all
personnel riding on the apparatus.
• It is most desirable for riders to don their
protective gear before getting in the apparatus.
• NFPA 1901, Standard for Automotive Fire
Apparatus, requires that a seat and seat belt be
provided within the cab or body of the apparatus
for every firefighter who is expected to ride the
truck.
40. Apparatus Rider Safety
• NFPA 1500, Standard on Fire Department
Occupational Safety and Health Program, also
specifically states that all riders must be seated
and belted. The standard does, however, provide
three exceptions to the requirement:
– When providing patient care in the back of an
ambulance
– When loading hose back onto a fire apparatus
– When training personnel to drive the tiller portion of
a tractor-drawn aerial apparatus.
41. Backing the Vehicle
• All fire departments should have firmly
established procedures for backing the
vehicle.
• Whenever possible, the driver should avoid
backing the apparatus.
– It is normally safer and quicker to drive around
the block and start again.
– It is desirable to have drive-through bays that
negate the necessity to back the apparatus into
them.
42. Backing the Vehicle
• When it is necessary to back fire apparatus, there
should be at least one firefighter- and preferably
two- with a portable radio or headset to clear the
way and warn the driver of any obstacles.
43. Backing the Vehicle
• If two spotters are used, only one should communicate
with the driver. The second spotter should assist the first
one.
• Very simply, if you cannot see the spotters, do not back
the apparatus!
• All fire apparatus should be equipped with a back up
alarm.
44. Defensive Driving Techniques
• Sound defensive driving skills are one of the
most important aspects of safe driving.
• Every driver should be familiar with the basic
concepts of defensive driving which include:
– Anticipating other drivers’ actions
– Estimating visual lead time
– Knowing braking and reaction times
– Combating skids
– Knowing evasive tactics
– Having knowledge of weight transfer
45. Defensive Driving Techniques
• The driver should know the rules that
govern the general public when emergency
vehicles are on the road.
– Most laws provide that other vehicles must pull
toward the right and remain at a standstill until
the emergency vehicle has passed.
• People may panic at the sound of an
approaching emergency vehicle or may not
hear the warning signals at all.
46. Defensive Driving Techniques
• Intersections are the most likely place that an emergency
vehicle will have a collision.
– The driver should slow the vehicle to where a complete stop
can be made if necessary.
– The driver should stop the apparatus, even when faced with a
green light, if the view of the intersection is obstructed.
• A fire apparatus making an emergency response, may
proceed through a red traffic signal or stop sign after
coming to a complete stop and assuring that all lanes of
traffic are accounted for and yielding to the apparatus.
47. Defensive Driving Techniques
• Where all lanes of traffic are blocked in the
same direction as the fire apparatus is traveling,
the driver should move the apparatus into the
opposing lane of traffic and proceed at an
extremely reduced speed.
– All warning devices must be used.
– Where oncoming traffic will not be able to see the
apparatus, this procedure is not recommended.
– The driver must be alert for traffic that may enter
from access roads and driveways.
48. Defensive Driving Techniques
• The use of warning sirens,
lights and signals is
essential.
• The driver must realize
that these signals may be
blanketed by other
warning devices and by
street noises.
• Serious collisions have
occurred due to over
reliance on warning
signals.
49. Anticipating Other
Drivers’ Actions
• Never assume what
another driver’s actions
will be
• Expect the unexpected
• Anticipation is the key
to safe driving.
50. Anticipating Other
Drivers’ Actions
• Always remember the following control factors:
– Aim high in steering: Find a safe path will ahead.
– Get the big picture: Stay back and see it all.
– Keep your eyes moving: Scan – do not stare.
– Leave yourself an “out”: Be prepared by expecting the
unexpected.
– Make sure that others can see and hear you: Use
lights, horn and signals in combination.
51. Visual Lead Time
• Visual lead time refers to the driver scanning far enough
ahead, for the speed which is being driven, to assure that
appropriate action can be taken if necessary.
– The driver needs to learn to match the speed he is traveling with
the distance ahead of the vehicle he is surveying.
• Visual lead time interacts directly with reaction time and
stopping distances.
– By “aiming high in steering” and “getting the big picture”, it is
possible to become more keenly aware of conditions that may
require slowing or stopping.
52. Braking and Reaction Time
• A driver should know
the total stopping
distance for a
particular fire
apparatus.
• The total stopping
distance is the sum of
the driver reaction
distance and the
vehicle braking
distance
53. Braking and Reaction Time
• The driver reaction distance is the distance
a vehicle travels while the driver is
transferring the foot from the accelerator to
the brake after perceiving the need to stop.
• The braking distance is the distance the
vehicle travels from the time the brakes are
applied until the apparatus comes to a
complete stop.
54. Braking Distance
• There are a number of factors that
influence the drivers ability to stop.
– Condition of the driving surface.
– Speed of the apparatus.
– Weight of the vehicle.
– Type and condition of the braking system.
55. Weight Transfer
• Weight transfer occurs as the result of
physical laws that state that objects in
motion tend to stay in motion; objects at
rest tend to remain at rest.
– When a vehicle undergoes a change in velocity
or direction, weight transfer takes place relative
to the severity of change.
56. Weight Transfer
• Weight transfer can contribute to skidding
or possible rollover. These conditions can
result from too much speed in turns, harsh
or abrupt steering action, or driving on
slopes too steep for a particular apparatus.
– Steering should be smooth and continuous.
– Maintain a speed that is slow enough to prevent
severe weight transfer from occurring. This is
particularly important on curves.
57. Combating Skids
• The best way to combat skidding is to avoid
the conditions that lead to skidding.
• The most common causes of skids involve
driver error:
– Driving to fast for road conditions.
– Failing to properly appreciate weight shifts.
– Improper use of auxiliary braking devices.
– Improper tread depth and tire pressure.
58. Combating Skids
• Most newer apparatus are equipped with
antilock braking systems (ABS).
• When driving a vehicle equipped with an
ABS, maintain a steady pressure on the
brake pedal (rather than pumping the pedal)
until the apparatus is brought to a complete
halt.
59. Combating Skids
• When an apparatus not equipped with ABS
goes into a skid; release the brakes, and turn
the apparatus steering wheel so that the
front wheels face in the direction of the
skid.
60. Auxiliary Braking Systems
• The front brake-limiting valve type commonly
known as the “dry road/slippery road” switch,
reduced the air pressure on the front steering axle
by 50% when activated.
– This would prevent the front wheels from locking up,
allowing the driver to steer the apparatus even if the
back wheels were locked into a skid.
– In actuality, it reduced the braking system by 25%
which on a braking system that was not in optimum
condition could cause the driver to be unable to stop.
61. Auxiliary Braking Systems
• Another type is the inter-axle differential
lock, also known as a power divider or third
differential. This is another type of switch
that can be activated from the cab.
– It allows for a difference in speed between the
two rear axles, while providing pulling power
from each axle. This is intended to provide
greater traction for each axle.
62. Auxiliary Braking Systems
• Automatic traction control (ATC) is
equipped on some vehicles with ABS.
• ATC helps improve traction on slippery
roads by reducing drive wheel over spin.
– ATC works automatically in two ways: When
the drive wheel starts to spin, the ATC applies
air pressure to brake the wheel. The ATC also
reduces the engine torque to provide improved
traction.
63. Passing Other Vehicles
• In general, it is best to avoid passing vehicles that are not
pulling over to yield the right-of-way.
• If the driver must pass; these guidelines should be used
to ensure safe passing:
– Always travel on the innermost lanes on multi-lane roads.
– Avoid passing vehicles on their right sides.
– Make sure you can see that the opposing lanes are clear of
traffic.
– Avoid passing other emergency vehicles if at all possible.
– Flash your high beams to get the other drivers attention.
64. Adverse Weather
• Rain, snow, ice, and
mud make roads
slippery.
• A driver must recognize
these dangers and adjust
the apparatus speed
according to the crown
of the road, sharpness of
the curves and condition
of the road surface.
65. Adverse Weather
• Remember that it takes
3 to 15 times more
distance for a vehicle
to come to a complete
stop on snow and ice
than it does on dry
concrete.
66. Warning Devices
• All fire apparatus are equipped
with a combination of visual
and audible warning devices
• Audible warning devices may
include:
– Air horns
– Bells
– Mechanical sirens
– Electronic sirens
67. Warning Devices
• Studies show that civilian
drivers react better to sounds
that change pitch often.
• At speeds above 50 mph, an
emergency vehicle may
outrun the effective range of
its audible warning device.
• At 40 mph a siren can project
300 feet in front of a vehicle,
at 60 mph the siren is only
audible 12 feet or less in
front of the vehicle.
68. Warning Devices
• White lights can be distinguished during day light
hours, therefore headlights should be turned on
while responding.
• A spot light moving across the back window of a
vehicle; rapidly gains the driver’s attention.
– The spot light should not be left shinning on the
vehicle, because this blinds the driver.
69. Warning Devices
• The trend in recent years has been to
equip apparatus with a large amount of
visual warning devices.
– This quantity has proven effective during
response.
– However, the large quantity of lights has
over powered the effectiveness of
firefighters’ protective trim. Therefore it is
desirable to turn off some of the lights on
the apparatus once it is parked.
70. Warning Devices
• Some apparatus have been equipped with yellow
warning lights that are turned on when the
apparatus is parked on the scene.
• The red flashing and strobe lights can be turned
off which allows approaching vehicles headlights
to more effectively illuminate the reflective trim
worn by firefighters.