In dit Engelse artikel geven de auteurs een overzicht van de belangrijkste benaderingen van veranderen. Het gaat dan om vijf theorieën, elk getypeerd in een kleur.

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Abstract
The authors present five fundamentally different
Change Paradigms: ways of thinking about change, each representing
An Overview different beliefs systems and convictions about how
change works, the kind of interventions that are
effective, how to change people, etc. They are la-
beled by color: yellow, blue, red, green, and white
Léon de Caluwé and Hans print thinking. Each is based upon a family of theo-
Vermaak ries about change. These five models function as
communication and diagnostic tools and provide a
map of possible change strategies.
Introduction
A search for the underlying values of the word
change results in a whole range of meanings and
different rationalities. There is often a world of
Léon de Caluwé difference between them. As a result, the practical
applications of change strategies or approaches
Léon de Caluwé, PhD, is social psy- vary widely. Conceptual clarity is desired to better
chologist. He is a part-time professor at express the various meanings of the word change
the Free University in Amsterdam where for several reasons:
he leads the Center for Research in
Consultancy. He is also a partner with the 1. It facilitates clearer communication between
Twynstra Group of consultants. He has 25
years of experience in consultancy and the people involved, for example,
specialized in change, consultancy and communication between and among managers,
interventions. He published more than 80 consultants, and academics.
articles and more than 10 books. Several Misunderstandings and conflicts can and do
of them are in English, one in Russian. arise, for instance, when change strategies are
His dissertation was named “Best Book
of the Year” by the Dutch Association of discussed in a management team between
Consultants. people who believe change is essentially a
power game versus people who believe it is a
Contact Information rational endeavor. A new shorthand language
Léon de Caluwé and Hans Vermaak for this complex subject matter creates the
Twnstra Management Consultants possibility for shared interpretations and
PO Box 907
3800 AX Amerfsfoort
meanings.
The Netherlands 2. It can be used to characterize dominant
Telephone +31 33 4677761 paradigms in groups or organizations, serving
Email: lca@tg.nl and/or hve@tg.nl as a diagnostic tool for characterizing
different actors involved in a change effort.
Moreover, the paradigms themselves represent
different views of the organization and its
Volume 22 • Number 4 • Winter 2004 9

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problems. Such different viewpoints help
paint a more complete and complex
picture of organizational life.
3. It provides a map of possible strategies to
deal with organizational issues. The idea
is that not that “anything goes.” It is
relevant to know what kind of approaches
are available as well as to have some
sense of indicators that facilitate a choice
of what approach is more fitting given
one certain situation rather than others.
4. It offers change agents a tool for reflective
Hans Vermaak questioning: “What are your own
assumptions? What is your (key)
Hans Vermaak, MMC, PhD, is a partner with competence for bringing about change,
the Twynstra Group. He has worked as a and what are your limitations?” It can
consultant and coach for about 15 years. His assist change agents in delineating their
principal area of consulting concerns
organizational development within area of expertise and their professional
professional firms and institutions. He heads development.
the knowledge center Change Management of
the Twynstra Group and trains change agents
in academic and client settings. He frequently In this article we touch on a meta-theoretical
lectures and publishes on the subjects of concept—the colors—that has been devel-
professionalism, change, learning and oped in the last five years and has been exten-
coaching in Dutch and in English and has
sively applied in both in management educa-
received several publication awards.
tion and change practice in the Netherlands.
More recently it is being applied in English-
speaking arenas. It has proven to be both
robust and versatile. The choice for “colors”
as labels is based on the need for some type of
shorthand that would not stress any specific
order.
Yellow-Print Thinking
Yellow-print thinking is based on socio-
political concepts about organizations in
which interests, conflicts, and power play
important roles (e.g., Greiner & Schein, 1988;
Hanson, 1996; Pfeffer, 1981). Yellow-print
thinking assumes that people change their
standpoints only if their own interests are
taken into account, or if compelled to accept
certain ideas. Combining ideas or points of
view and forming coalitions or power blocks
are favored methods in this type of change
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process. Change is seen as a negotiation
exercise aimed at feasible solutions. The foremost consideration of
for
oremost considera
Yellow-print thinkers believe that getting yellow-print chang ag
hange
the yellow-print change agent
everyone on the same wavelength is a alw
is to always bear in mind the
change in itself. In this view, enabling conglomer
lomera interests
ests,
conglomeration of interests,
change requires getting the powers-that-be parties
ties, players strive
parties, and players and strive
behind it, whether power based on formal for agreements and policies.
ag policies.
position or informal influence. It is
thought that resistance is built in if key
players are not brought on board. Facilitat- Blue-Print Thinking
ing communication, lobbying, negotiating, Blue-print thinking is based on the ratio-
and third-party conflict resolution are nal design and implementation of change
much-used interventions. Stakeholder (e.g., Hammer & Champy, 1993). Scien-
analysis is crucial. Sticking to and realiz- tific management (Taylor, 1913) is a
ing the outcome of these processes—goals, classic example. Project management one
policies, or programs—is a huge task its strongest tools (e.g., Wijnen & Kor,
because the socio-political context is and 2000). In blue-print thinking, it is as-
stays dynamic. Consequently, the result of sumed that people or things will change if
change is difficult to predict because it a clearly specified result is laid down
depends on the distribution and shifts in beforehand. Controlling the change by
standpoints and influence of the most managing, planning, and monitoring the
important players. Moreover, for a change progress is considered feasible. The
agent, the process is difficult to plan and process and the result are deemed, more or
predict. less, independent of people. Management
is able to compel and effect the change.
The change agent is a facilitator who has Both outcome and process are planned
an independent position. Such facilitators down to the last detail. Change is consid-
guard their power base carefully. It is ered to be a rational process aimed at the
based on their experience, reputation and best possible solution. There is continuous
connections but can be augmented by monitoring based on pre-determined
specific mandates. They have a good sense indicators to check whether the activities
for power structures and balances. Self- are leading to the desired result as
control, diplomacy, stability and flexibility planned. If not, adjustments are made to
are important attributes of such a change achieve that which has been agreed upon
agent. The foremost consideration of the within the frameworks of time, money,
yellow-print change agent is to always quality, information, and organization.
bear in mind the conglomeration of inter- Other interventions are analytical endeav-
ests, parties, and players and strive for ors such as SWOT analyses,
agreements and policies. We call this way benchmarking, business process redesign,
of thinking “yellow-print thinking”: Yel- total quality management, restructuring
low is the color of power (e.g., symbols and so on. There is a wide array of well-
like the sun, fire) and the type of process defined methods. The subject of the
(brooding and coalition formation around a change (the project leader) and its object
fire). (the target group) are often different
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people or entities. The approach is rational plished by stimulating people, by making
(planning) and empirical (indicators). it appealing to adjust behavior. Thus a key
Think first (define and design) and then do concept is barter: the organization hands
(implement) is the maxim. Naturally this out rewards and facilities in exchange for
approach lends itself best to hard aspects personnel taking on responsibilities and
of organizations: structures, systems, and trying their best. On top of this, however,
strategies. Change agents are experts on management’s care and attention are also
the content of the change effort. They take important. Red-print thinking strives to
full responsibility for implementation and develop competencies and making the
monitoring when mandated to do so. most of people’s talents. The aim is a good
Result orientation, decisiveness, accuracy, “fit” between what individuals want and
and dedication are necessary attributes for what the organization needs. Red-print
such a change agent. The foremost consid- thinking makes abundant use of HRM
erations of the blue-print changer are tools. People are rewarded (salary, promo-
these: Plan and organize first; use all tion, bonus, a good evaluation) for desired
possible expertise and do not let people’s behavior or penalized (demotion, poor
individual ideas and preferences interfere; evaluation) for undesired behavior. Career
and never lose sight of the intended result. paths, assessments, recruitments, out-
We call this way of thinking “blue-print placements, work design (task enrichment
thinking”: A blueprint is the (architectural) and enlargement) and employee wellness
design or plan that is drawn up beforehand programs are all relevant interventions.
and guarantees the actual outcome. Management gets up on a soapbox, gives
speeches, and induces people into embark-
ing on a change. Social activities and team
The foremost considerations building are used to create a positive
of the blue-print changer are atmosphere and social cohesion. The
these: Plan and organize first; outcome of the change (the result) can,
use all possible expertise and according to red-print thinking, be thought
do not let people’s individual out beforehand, but it cannot be fully
ideas and preferences inter- guaranteed because it depends on employ-
fere; and never lose sight of ees’ response; the desired outcome might
the intended result. change somewhat as a result. Monitoring
takes place, but for both ethical and politi-
cal reasons, there is a limit to how force-
Red-Print Thinking fully the process can be adjusted along the
Red-print thinking has its roots in the way. Change agents are good at motivating
classic Hawthorne experiments (Mayo, people and at devising systems and proce-
1933; Roethlisberger, 1941). McGregor dures that facilitate this adjustment. They
(1960) developed the tradition further. In are “people managers” who manage by
more recent times, Human Resources walking. They can also be HRM experts
Management (HRM) has been an expres- who supply people managers with HRM
sion of this approach (e.g., Schoemaker, tools. Carefulness, steadfastness, and
1994). Change in this way of thinking loyalty are relevant attributes of the
equates with people changing their behav- change agent. The foremost consideration
ior. This approach to change is accom- of the red-print change agent is that the
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human factor plays a vital role. People the most relevant learning goals. Green-
make changes happen if guided in the print thinking is concerned with allowing
right direction. The color chosen here and supporting people to take ownership
refers to the color of human blood. The of their learning. Typical interventions are
human being must be influenced, at- coaching, simulations, survey feedback,
tracted, compelled, and stimulated. open-systems planning, action learning,
feedback, and leadership training. The
change process takes time: Learning is not
The foremost consideration of forced. It is a fluctuating process of learn-
the red-print change agent is ing and unlearning, trial and error. The
that the human factor plays a change agents play a facilitating role, not a
vital role. controlling one. They design learning
situations, give feedback, support experi-
menting with new behavior, structure
Green-Print Thinking communication and are learning them-
Green-print thinking has its roots in selves in the process. Thinking and doing
action-learning theories (e.g., Kolb, are tightly coupled, not sequential (as it is
Rubbin, & Osland, 1991; Argyris & in blue-print thinking): All involved are
Schön, 1978). It has been expanded enor- frequently reflecting on their actions.
mously in the more recent thinking on Empathy, creativity, and openness are
learning organizations (e.g., Senge, 1990). important attributes of the change agent.
Changing and learning are conceptually The foremost consideration of the change
closely linked: the terms change and agent is to motivate and support people to
learning have very similar meanings. learn with each other and from each other
People are motivated to discover the limits in order to establish continuous learning in
of their competencies and to involve collective settings. The color green is
themselves in learning situations. They are chosen because the objective is to get
provided with means for learning more people’s ideas to work (with their motiva-
effective ways of acting. The aim is to tion and learning capacity), giving them
strengthen the learning abilities of the the “green light.” But it also refers to
individual and the learning within the “growth,” as in nature.
organization. If people learn collectively,
the organization learns and as a result,
different organizational behavior results The foremost consideration of
and change is a fact. The process is char- the change agent is to moti-
acterized by setting up learning situa- vate and support people to
tions—preferably collective ones as these learn with each other and from
allows people to give and receive feedback each other in order to estab-
as well as to experiment with more effec- lish continuous learning in
tive ways of acting. Monitoring is not collective settings.
meant to adjust the change in the direction
of some predetermined outcome, but just
White-Print Thinking
for planning a follow-up that is in line White-print thinking arose as a reaction to
with what the people involved regard as the deterministic, mechanistic, and linear
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worldview derived from Newton and sive factors. Outside influence, whether
Descartes. It is nourished by chaos think- from a change agent or a manager, can be
ing, network theory, and complexity of only limited effect and then only if this
theory, all of which are based on living influence is welcomed by the ones who are
and complex systems with limited pre- changing. The above does NOT equal
dictability (e.g., Capra, 1996; Prigonine & doing nothing or laissez faire. On the
Stengers, 1986; Bateson, 1972). Self- contrary, it demands in-depth observation,
organization is a core concept. Stacey analysis of underlying drivers, and often
(1996) defines it as a process in which confronting interventions. Change agents
people interact according to their own must be capable of making sense out of
norms without a map of what to do or complexity, often looking at historical
how to get there. The self-organization patterns and psychological mechanisms.
process encompasses the emergence of Honesty, authenticity and self-confidence
new structures and behavioral patterns are relevant attributes of such change
through developmental, learning, and agents. The foremost consideration of the
evolutionary processes. The system finds white-print change agent is to observe
its own optimal dynamic balance. In what is making things happen and change,
white-print thinking, the dominant image supply meanings and perspectives, remove
is that everything is changing autono- obstacles, get initiatives and explorations
mously, of its own accord. Where there is going, and empower people while giving
energy, things change. When this is the them sufficient free rein. The belief that
case, the time is ripe. Complexity is “crisis provides opportunity” applies here.
regarded as the enriching nature of things, The color white reflects all colors. But
not as disruptive chaos. Influencing the more important, white denotes openness; it
underlying dynamics is a favorite ap- allows room for self-organization and
proach. White print thinkers try to under- evolution. The outcome remains somewhat
stand where opportunities lie and search of a surprise.
for the seeds of renewal and creativity.
Sense-making plays an important role in
this, as does the removing of obstacles The foremost consideration of
and explicitly relying on the strength and the white-print change agent is
soul of people. In a way white-print to observe what is making
change agents catalyze the emergence of things happen and change,
more white-print change agents. They call supply meanings and perspec-
on people’s strengths, self-confidence, tives, remove obstacles, get
inspiration, and energy. Whereas interven- initiatives and explorations
tions that take away obstacles can seem to going, and empower people
be of a very different color (e.g., while giving them sufficient
delayering the organization), interventions free rein.
that tap people’s energy are more easily
identified: e.g., open space meetings,
appreciative enquiry, dialogue, search
conferences, self-steering teams. The
inner desires and strengths of people, both
individually and as groups, are the deci-
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Expansion of the Model and to the colors in addition to the ones men-
Search for a Meta-paradigm tioned here and summarized in Table 1.
Is this a complete overview? The colors do These are characteristics like output
seem to cover most of the steady stream of criteria, diagnostic models, glossaries and
experience, research, and publications of typical sayings, bodies of literature, styles
which we are aware. Nevertheless, the of communications, norms and values of
overview is probably never fully complete. change agents, ways to deal with contract-
Since we put forward the concept of colors ing or with resistance, typical pitfalls, and
of change, we have found that people ideals. We are addressing these in separate
easily attribute many other characteristics publications (e.g., de Caluwé and
Vermaak, 2003).
Table 1. The Five Colors at Glance
Yellow-print Blue-print Red-print Green-print White-print
Something bring common think first and stimulate people create settings for create space for
changes when interests together then act according in the right way collective spontaneous
you… to a plan learning evolution
power game
rational process exchange exercise learning process dynamic process
in a/an....
a feasible a motivating
solution, a win- the best solution, solution, the best a solution that a solution that
and create.... win situation a brave new 'fit' people develop releases energy
world themselves
Interventions forming project assessment & training and open space
such as... coalitions, management, reward, social coaching, meetings, self-
changing top strategic analysis, gatherings, open systems steering teams,
structures, policy auditing situational planning, gaming appreciative
making leadership inquiry
experts in the facilitators who
By... field procedure experts create settings for
facilitators who who elicits learning personalities who
use their own involvement use their being as
power base instrument
analytical and HRM knowledge OD knowledge
Who have... planning skills and motivational and feedback an ability to
a good sense for skills skills discern and create
power balances new meanings
and mediation
knowledge and procedures and the setting and patterns and
And focus results working climate communication persons
on... positions and
context
Result is... partly unknown described and outlined but not envisioned but unpredictable on
and shifting guaranteed guaranteed not guaranteed a practical level
Safeguarded decision benchmarking HRM systems a learning self-management
by... documents and and ISO systems organization
power balances
The pitfalls dreaming and ignoring external ignoring power excluding no-one superficial
lie in... lose-lose and irrational and smothering and lack of action understanding
aspects brilliance and laissez faire
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There is also a meta-paradigm behind the 2. A foundational (color) focus on the
five-color classification described here. change strategy is needed, especially
The description of five ways of thinking when problems are deeply rooted as
emerges from a meta-paradigm that posits different colored approaches, can
a need for distinctions in diversity and a interfere considerably with one
search for professional insights and values another. For instance, trying to create
based on these (de Caluwé and Vermaak, a learning environment (green) while
2003b): not keeping power games at bay
(yellow) or downplaying the
predictability of outcomes (blue)
In order to survive in the long means that the learning is bound to be
run, organizations seem to superficial. Each color has its strong
need qualities of each and and weak points. The kind of
any one of the colors. organization, the issue at hand, the
kind of resistance, the style of the
change agents, the time pressure and
other circumstances, all are factors
1. We start to suspect that any strong that influence what change strategy, or
color dominance in organizations is color print, can best make a
unwanted. In order to survive in the difference. This is not to say that a
long run, organizations seem to need change strategy has to be restricted to
qualities of each and any one of the one color, but does imply that one
colors. Organizations need to deal should take interferences between
properly with power and different colored actions into account when
interests (yellow), must effectively intervening in organizations. A
and dependably get results and relatively easy way of dealing with
maintain organizational hygiene interferences is to space different
(blue), must take the irrational human color interventions in time or have
being into account and insert care and different people involved. More
perspective in organizational life challenging is to maintain one
(red), have to create spaces to learn constant underlying color tenet while
and cooperate (green) and need to allowing for more superficial, other-
align themselves with the times they colored contributions.
live in and the people they live with
and innovate accordingly (white). The 3. The color of the change agent should
different colors have conflicting match the change effort: incongruence
principles, meaning that a balanced or frustrates change. It makes little sense
sound organization has to cope with to embark on a yellow endeavor with
the paradoxes that result from these an analytical expert who strives for
conflicting principles. This realization the best solutions (blue) rather than
reinforces the need to diagnose what is feasible given the balance of
organizations from the different power. While change agents might be
colored viewpoints in order to be able to at least intellectually grasp that
aware of imbalances. all colors are equal, when it comes
down to it, most change agents have
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more narrowly defined beliefs/intentions organizations is best based on
and these should match their role in collectively taking multiple realities and
order for them to be believable. This is corresponding paradoxes into account.
not to say that change agents can be
branded in single colors and remain as
they are over the years. Change agents Moreover, organizational
may be able to handle different change is a collective effort
approaches to change but not to their and, more often than not,
full potential. They may change colors involves people with multiple
but take many years to do so as each perspectives on
color brings with it a whole body of organizational life and
knowledge with many interventions, multiple definitions of reality.
competencies, and diagnostic
viewpoints.
4. Lastly, we posit that dialogues in
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