1. Biology 11 (Fundamentals of Biology I)
ANIMALS: Form and Function
Lecturer: Ian Kendrich C. Fontanilla, Ph.D.
Pav. IV, Room 4113
Main References:
(1) Biology by Campbell and Reece
(2) Integrated Principles of Zoology
by Hickman et al.

2. ANIMALS : Form and Function
A. Animal Cell Types and Tissues
B. Animal Systems and Processes
1. Support and Protection
2. Movement
3. Digestion and Nutrition
4. Gas Exchange
5. Transport/Circulation
6. Excretion and Osmoregulation
7. Regulatory Mechanisms

3. ANIMALS : Form and Function
• Anatomy - the study of the biological form of an
organism
• Physiology - the study of the biological functions an
organism performs
• The comparative study of animals reveals that form
and function are closely correlated

4. •
Life is
characterized by
hierarchical
levels of
organization,
each with
emergent
properties.

5. Levels of Organization in Organismal Complexity
1. Protoplasmic grade of organization
2. Cellular grade of organization
3. Cell-tissue grade of organization
4. Tissue-organ grade of organization
5. Organ-system grade of organization

6. Levels of Organization in Organismal Complexity
1. Protoplasmic grade of organization
–
unicellular organisms
–
all life functions are confined within the boundaries
of a single cell
–
protoplasm is differentiated into organelles
Paramecium

7. Levels of Organization in Organismal Complexity
2. Cellular grade of organization
–
aggregation of cells that are functionally
differentiated
–
a division of labor is evident
Volvox

8. Levels of Organization in Organismal Complexity
3. Cell-tissue grade of organization
–
aggregation of similar cells into definite patterns of
layers, thus becoming a tissue

9. Levels of Organization in Organismal Complexity
4. Tissue-organ grade of organization
–
an aggregation of tissues into organs
Planaria

10. Levels of Organization in Organismal Complexity
5. Organ-system grade of organization
–
organs work together to perform some function
–
systems are associated with basic body functions

11. Structural Organization in Higher Forms
Structural Types/Kinds/Examples Field of
Unit Study
Organ Integumentary Respiratory Anatomy
System Muscular Reproductive
Skeletal Digestive
Nervous Endocrine
Circulatory Immune
Excretory
Organ oral cavity brain Anatomy
pharynx eye
esophagus liver
stomach kidney
pancreas lung
intestines anus

12. Structural Organization in Higher Forms
Structural Types/Kinds/Examples Field of
Unit Study
Tissue A.Somatic B. Reproductive Histology
- epithelial - sperm
- connective - egg/oocyte
- muscular
- nervous
Cell same as in tissue Cytology/Cel
l Biology

13. Animal Cell Types

14. Four main categories of animal tissues
1. Epithelial Tissue
2. Connective Tissue
3. Muscular Tissue
4. Nervous Tissue

15. 1. Epithelial Tissue
•
covers the outside of the body and lines organs
and cavities within the body
•
compact; occurs in sheets of tightly packed cells
•
little intercellular substance
•
polarized

16. 1. Epithelial Tissue
•
the free surface of the epithelium is exposed to air or
fluid
•
structures on free surfaces: microvilli, cilia, flagella
•
Basement membrane
•
where the cells at the
base of the barrier are
attached
•
also called basal
lamina

17. 1. Epithelial Tissue
–
cells are closely joined
–
animals have 3 main types of intercellular links:
1. tight junctions
2. desmosomes
3. gap junctions

19. 1. Tight Junction
Tight junction
0.5 µm
•
membranes of adjacent cells are fused, forming
continuous belts around cells
•
prevent leakage of extracellular fluid across a layer of
epithelial cells

20. 2. Desmosomes
•
fasten cells together into
strong sheets, much like
rivets
•
reinforced by intermediate
filaments of keratin
•
attach muscle cells to each
other in a muscle
Desmosome
1 µm

21. 3. Gap Junction
Gap junction
0.1 µm
•
provide cytoplasmic channels between adjacent cells
•
salt ions, sugar, amino acids, and other small
molecules can pass through channels

22. 1. Epithelial Tissue
Types according to layering:
1. simple epithelium
- Made up of a single
layer of cells
2. stratified epithelium
- Made up of many
layers of cells
3. pseudostratified epithelium
- Made up of a single
layer of cells but
appears stratified

23. 1. Epithelial Tissue
Types of epithelial cells according to shape:
1. Cuboidal – like dice
2. Squamous – flat like tiles
3. Columnar – like
bricks on end

24. Simple squamous epithelium
•
composed of flattened cells
•
form a continuous delicate lining of blood
capillaries, lungs, and other surfaces
•
permits the passive diffusion of gases and tissue
fluids into and out of cavities

25. Stratified squamous epithelium
•
consists of 2 to many
layers of cells
•
adapted to withstand mild
mechanical abrasion
•
basal layers of cells
undergo continuous
mitotic divisions
•
lines the oral cavity,
esophagus, anal canal,
vagina of mammals, skin

26. Simple cuboidal epithelium
•
short, boxlike cells collecting duct in kidney
•
usually lines small ducts and tubules
•
may have active secretory and absorptive
functions

27. Simple columnar epithelium
roof of mouth of toad
•
like cuboidal epithelium but cells are taller
•
found on highly absorptive surfaces such as
intestinal tract and female reproductive tract
•
in some organs, cells may be ciliated

28. Stratified columnar epithelium
salivary duct
•
consists of at least two layers of cells
•
found along some areas of the anorectal region
and salivary duct

29. Transitional epithelium
•
a type of stratified epithelium
•
specialized to accommodate
great stretching
•
found in the urinary tract and
bladder

30. Glandular epithelia, absorb or secrete chemical
solutions
Types based on how products are released:
a. exocrine (unicellular or multicellular)
b. endocrine
c. mixed (e.g., pancreas)

31. Special terms of some epithelial tissues:
a. mesothelium – squamous cells lining serous
cavities such as peritoneal and pleural cavities and
lining of visceral organs
b. endothelium – lining of blood and lymph
vessels

32. 2. Connective Tissue
•
mechanical support
•
bind structures to preserve integrity of organization
•
exchange of metabolites between blood and
tissues
•
storage of energy reserve in adipose tissues
•
protection against infection
•
repair

33. 2. Connective Tissue
•
paucity of cells; more intercellular substance
(fibers and ground substance)
•
the extracellular matrix generally consists of a
web of fibers embedded in a uniform foundation
that may be liquid, jellylike, or solid

34. 2. Connective Tissue
•
amorphous ground substance
- glycosaminoglycans such as chondroitin sulfate
- permit diffusion of nutrients, substances, water,
gases, and wastes
- important in areas where small blood vessels are
absent

35. 2. Connective Tissue
Types of cells:
A. fixed
- fibroblast/fibrocyte
- mesenchymal
- adipose
- fixed macrophage
B. wandering (from blood)
- monocyte - plasma cell - mast cell
- lymphocyte - eosinophil

36. Three kinds of connective tissue fibers:
•
Collagenous fibers (white)
–
made of collagen
–
nonelastic and do not tear easily when pulled
lengthwise
•
Elastic fibers (yellow)
–
long threads of elastin
–
elastin fiber provides a rubbery quality
•
Reticular fibers (branching)
–
very thin and branched
–
composed of collagen

37. 37
Diagram of Fibrous Connective
Tissue

38. Major types of connective tissues in vertebrates

39. Major types of connective tissues in vertebrates
A. Fibrous connective tissue
–
dense due to its large
number of collagenous
fibers
–
the fibers are organized into
parallel bundles
–
forms tendons and
ligaments

40. Major types of connective tissues in vertebrates
B. Loose connective tissue
–
binds epithelia to underlying tissues
–
functions as packing materials, holding organs in
place
–
has all three fiber types
•
two cell types
predominate in its
fibrous mesh
- fibroblasts
- macrophages

41. Major types of connective tissues in vertebrates
C. Adipose tissue
–
specialized form of loose
connective tissues that store fat
in adipose cells
–
pads and insulates the body
and stores fuel as fat molecules
–
each adipose cell contains a
large fat droplet that swells
when fat is stored and shrinks
when the body uses fat as fuel

42. Major types of connective tissues in vertebrates
D. Cartilage
–
has an abundance of collagenous fibers embedded in
a rubbery matrix made of a substance called
chondroitin sulfate, a protein-carbohydrate complex
–
chondrocytes secrete collagen and chondroitin
sulfate
–
Types:
1. Hyaline cartilage
2. Elastic cartilage

43. 1. Hyaline cartilage
–
bluish white, translucent, and homogenous
–
has significant proportion of collagen fibers
–
covers joint surfaces and rib ends
–
present in the nose, larynx, and trachea
–
skeletal cartilage in the embryos of all vertebrates
–
skeletal cartilage of adult sharks and rays
–
support and reinforcement

44. 2. Elastic cartilage
–
contains fine collagenous fibers and many elastic
fibers
–
external ears, eustachian tube, epiglottis
–
maintains a structure’s shape while allowing great
flexibility

45. 3. Fibrocartilage
–
contains many large collagenous fibers
–
intervertebral disks, pubic symphysis, disks of knee
joint, and pads between femur and tibia
–
absorbs compression shock
Collagen fiber
Chondrocyte in
lacuna

46. Major types of connective tissues in vertebrates
E. Bone
–
the skeleton supporting most vertebrates
–
mineralized connective tissue
Copyright © 2002 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings

47. Major types of connective tissues in vertebrates
E. Bone
– Osteoblasts are cells that deposit a matrix of
collagen
– then, calcium, magnesium, and phosphate ions
combine and harden within the matrix into the
mineral hydroxyapatite
– the combination of hard mineral and flexible
collagen makes bone harder than cartilage without
being brittle
Copyright © 2002 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings

48. Major types of connective tissues in vertebrates
F. Blood
–
Made of:
1. Plasma (55%)
–
matrix consisting of water, salts, and a variety
of dissolved proteins
2. Formed elements (45%)
–
erythrocytes, leukocytes and cell fragments
called platelets
Copyright © 2002 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings

49. Blood
Plasma (55 %)
1. water (90% of plasma) 3. gases (O2, CO2, N)
2. dissolved solids
a. proteins
–.
fibrinogen (synthesized by the liver)
–.
albumin (synthesized by the liver)
–.
globulin
b. supplies for cells (glucose, fats and fat-like
substances, amino acids, salts)
c. cell products (enzyme, hormones, antibodies)

50. Blood
Formed elements (45 %) – produced by bone marrow

51. Types of White Blood Cells
Type % Nucleus Cytoplasmic Other
granule/cytoplasm features/
functions
A. granulocyte
1. neutrophil 60-75 2-5 or more thin lobes, fine; don’t stain phagocytic
connected by slender well at neutral pH
chromatic threads with either acid or
basic stain
2. eosinophil 2-5 2 oval lobes linked by granules, coarse; against
thread-like chromatin stain pinkish red helminthic
with acid stain infections
3. basophil 0.5-2 nuclei stain very faintly, stain blue with inflammatory
often obscured by basic dye reaction
cytoplasmic granules; U
or J-shaped

52. Types of White Blood Cells
Type % Nucleus Cytoplasmic Other
granule/cytoplasm features/
functions
B. agranulocyte
1. lymphocyte 20-25 large, somewhat narrow rim of smallest;
spherical with some cytoplasm antibody
indentations and only production
slightly concentric
position
2. monocyte 3-8 nuclei vary slightly, large amount of biggest;
indented ovals to horse- cytoplasm becomes
shoe shaped structure macrophage;
phagocytic

53. 3. Muscle Tissue
•
composed of long cells called muscle fibers that
are capable of contracting when stimulated by
nerve impulses
•
most abundant tissue in most animals
•
muscle contraction accounts for most of the
energy-consuming cellular work in active animals

54. Types of muscles tissue

55. Types of muscles tissue
1. skeletal muscle
•
has cylindrical and striated cells with multiple nuclei
(syncitial)
•
occurs in muscles attached to skeleton
•
single innervation by motor nerve
•
functions in voluntary movement of body

57. Types of muscles tissue
2. smooth muscle
•
spindle-shaped cells, each with a single nucleus
•
cells have no striations
•
double innervation by parasympathetic and
sympathetic nervous system; involuntary
•
blood vessel walls and walls of the digestive tract
•
functions in movement of substances in lumens of
body

58. Types of muscles tissue
3. cardiac muscle
•
has cylindrical but branching striated cells, each with a
single nucleus
•
double innervation by parasympathetic and
sympathetic nervous system; involuntary
•
occurs in the wall of the heart
•
functions in the pumping of blood

59. 4. Nervous Tissue
•
irritability and conductivity; senses stimuli and
transmits signals from one part of the animal to
another
•
neuron – functional unit of nervous tissue

60. 4. Nervous Tissue
Neurons consists of a cell
•
body, dendrites and axons
•
Dendrite – transmits nerve
impulses from their tips
toward the rest of the
neuron
Axon – transmits impulses
•
toward another neuron or
toward an effector, such as
a muscle cell

61. 4. Nervous Tissue
Types of neurons:
•
sensory (afferent)
•
motor (efferent)
•
interneuron

62. Animal Body Plans
Symmetry
–
refers to balanced proportions
–
correspondence in size and shape of parts on
opposite sides of a median plane

63. Spherical Symmetry •
any plane passing through
the center divides a body into
equivalent or mirrored halves
•
found chiefly among some
unicellular forms
•
rare in animals
•
best suited for floating and
rolling

64. Radial Symmetry •
body can be divided into
similar halves by more than
two planes passing through
the longitudinal axis
•
found in some sponges and
hydras, jellyfish, sea urchins
•
usually sessile, free floating
or weakly swimming

65. Biradial Symmetry •
only two planes passing
through the longitudinal axis
produce mirrored halves
because of some part that is
single or paired
•
comb jellies

66. Bilateral Symmetry •
body can be divided along a
sagittal plane into mirrored
portions – right and left
halves
•
much better suited for
directional (forward)
movement
•
strongly associated with
cephalization

67. Segmentation
•
metamerism
•
serial repetition of
similar body segments
along the longitudinal
axis of the body
•
segment (metamere or
somite)